A reanalysis of the higher-order factor structure of the motivation analysis test and the eight state questionnaire

In an exploratory study of the higher-order factor structure of the Motivation Analysis Test (MAT) and the Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ), Boyle (1983c) obtained an 11-factor solution comprising 9 second-order MAT factors and 2 higher-order 8SQ factors. However, application of more conservative criteria regarding the size of significant factor pattern loadings, significance of derived factors, together with reinterpretation of the appropriate Scree ‘break’, suggest that in Boyle's earlier analysis 2 factors too many were extracted. Recalculation of the factor pattern for the MAT (using 8SQ data as ‘hyperplane stuff’) supports the view that 7 rather than 9 second-order MAT factors were appropriate. A separate dR-factoring of the intercorrelations of the subscale difference scores indicated 3 higher-order 8SQ factors, indicative of change dimensions, and not 2 factors as found in the static single-occasion combined factoring of both the MAT and 8SQ data.     

Validation francophone de l’Échelle des émotions différentielles IV (EED-IV)

The goal of the present study was to examine validity and reliability indices of a French version of the DES-IV (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 (1993) 847–860). The DES-IV is an instrument evaluating the phenomenological experience of 12 trait-emotions. A total of 213 community-dwelling participants completed a questionnaire including the French version of the DES-IV and measures of depression, anxiety, life satisfaction, resilience, and the five factors of personality. A confirmatory factor analysis supported the 12-factor structure of the DES-IV. Moreover, results showed adequate convergent evidence of validity among the 12 emotions of the DES-IV and various measures of psychological adjustment and personality. Overall, findings suggest that the 12 trait-emotions measured by the DES-IV can be adequately differentiated.     

Individual differences in empathizing and systemizing in Japanese children: Psychometric properties of the children's versions of the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ)

In the present study, children's versions of the Empathy Quotient (EQ‐C) and the Systemizing Quotient (SQ‐C) were administered to 626 Japanese children (313 boys, 313 girls) aged 6–15 years. The psychometric properties of both quotients were found to be satisfactory. Sex differences were found in the scores for both quotients. The girls scored higher than the boys on the EQ‐C, while the boys scored higher than the girls on the SQ‐C. Proportions of cognitive styles, which were determined by differences between the standardized scores of the EQ‐C and SQ‐C, showed clear sex differences. The proportion of participants whose cognitive style was classified as empathizing‐dominant was greater for the girls, while the proportion of participants classified as systemizing‐dominant was greater for the boys. No developmental changes were found in either the scores for the EQ‐C and SQ‐C or the proportions of the cognitive styles.     

Proof of situational sensitivity of mood states and dynamic traits—ergs and sentiments—to disturbing stimuli

A separation of state and trait factors, and an allocation of modulation values to situations, was attempted by giving the Eight State Battery (8SQ) and the Motivation Analysis Test (MAT) to two groups, each under two situations, one aversive. The difference scores between a pre- and postexposure to the mild and the severe aversive situations were significant on all 8SQ factors but mainly on ergs, not sentiments, in the MAT. The state changes, notably on Anxiety, Regression, Depression and Guilt, were greater on the more shocking stimulus, while Fear rose and Narcism fell significantly on the MAT. Changes were greater on unintegrated than integrated motivational components, confirming hypotheses by others.     

Typological mood-state factors measured in the Eight State Questionnaire

Previous studies of the higher-order state-change factors in the Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ) have suggested that at least three typological mood-state dimensions are measured in the instrument. Nevertheless, the appropriate dR-factor analytic methodology has not always been employed, and even when it has (e.g. Boyle, 1985a), the sample size has been sufficient to allow only preliminary conclusions. The present study explores more thoroughly this issue of typological mood-state factors in the 8SQ using a large sample of 470 subjects. A dR-factoring of the intercorrelations for the subscale difference scores (across two separate measurement occasions) suggests clearly the presence of four different emotional/mood-type factors. These findings are compared with higher-order factors obtained previously for the Differential Emotions Scale (DES), an instrument which is also purported to measure fundamental human emotions.     

Empathizing, systemizing and finger length ratio in a Swedish sample

von Horn, A., Bäckman, L., Davidsson, T. & Hansen, S. (2010). Empathizing, systemizing and finger length ratio in a Swedish sample. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 31–37.
The Empathy- and Systemizing Quotients (EQ and SQ, respectively; Baron-Cohen, 2003 ) were determined in a Swedish sample consisting mainly of university undergraduates. Females had significantly higher EQ than males, who in turn scored higher on the SQ inventory. Gender explained 12–14% of the variation. Males were strikingly overrepresented in the group defined by a high SQ/low EQ profile or by a large SQ – EQ difference; females dominated among people with a low SQ/high EQ profile or by a large EQ – SQ difference. Students majoring in the natural sciences had higher SQs than psychology majors, but in both groups the gender difference in SQ and EQ was strong. For each participant a weighted composite score was generated by multivariate processing of the EQ and SQ data (Partial Least Square Discriminant Analysis). These scores were associated in a sex-linked fashion to a biometric measure reflecting prenatal testosterone exposure, i.e. the ratio between index (2D)- and ring (4D) finger lengths. In males a high (female-typical) 2D:4D ratio predicted an enhanced tendency to empathize and a reduced tendency to systemize; in women, by contrast, the 2D:4D ratio was unrelated to these traits. The present research confirms earlier work of a gender difference in EQ and SQ. The difference appears robust as it appears as large in Sweden (a country with high cultural gender-equality) as in countries with considerably lower gender-equality.     

Lack of correlation between digit ratio (2D:4D) and Baron-Cohen’s “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test, empathy, systemising, and autism-spectrum quotients in a general population sample

The second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is sexually differentiated and is a likely biomarker for the organisational (permanent) effects of prenatal testosterone on the human brain. Recent research has highlighted a possible role of prenatal testosterone levels in both the etiology of autism-spectrum disorders and in sex and individual differences in cognitive styles of the normal mind (Baron-Cohen’s Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism and Empathising/Systemising Theory). Importantly, autistic children present lower (hypermasculinised) 2D:4D than healthy controls. Based on these accounts, we investigated the relation of 2D:4D with Baron-Cohen’s measures of empathising (“Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test, RMET; Empathy Quotient, EQ), systemising (Systemising Quotient, SQ), and autistic-like traits (Autism-Spectrum Quotient, AQ) in the general population (N = 423 Austrian adults). Whereas sex differences into the expected direction and of expected size were obtained for all variables and internal scale consistencies tallied to retrievable reference values, 2D:4D was unrelated to RMET, EQ, SQ, and AQ scores. Candidate explanations for this lack of correlation might be possible developmental timing differences in the expression of 2D:4D and empathising/systemising, qualitative (as opposed to quantitative) functional differences between the normal and the autistic mind, or the suboptimal psychometric properties of the measures.     

Prospective versus retrospective assessment of Menstrual cycle symptoms and moods: Role of Attitudes and beliefs

Prospective vs. retrospective self-reports of menstrual cycle symptoms and moods in users and nonusers of oral contraceptives were investigated. Subjects, aged from 17 to 27 years, included 56 women on the pill and 47 nonusers. The Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) quantified physical symptomatology, while the Differential Emotions Scale (DES-IV) measured emotional states. Prospective reports suggested less discernible symptom and mood effects than did retrospective reports. Physical symptoms were significantly higher menstrually than premenstrually, whereas negative affects increased premenstrually. Women on the pill reported significantly fewer symptoms and negative moods than nonusers, although there were no significant differences in positive mood states. Menstrual Attitude Questionnaire (MAQ) scores suggested that nonusers of oral contraceptives found menstruation more debilitating than those on the pill. Based on a paper presented at the 5th Biennial Conference of the International Society for the Study of Individual Differences, Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, July 22–26, 1991.     

Psychometric analysis of the systemizing quotient (SQ) scale

The psychometric properties of the systemizing quotient (SQ) developed by Baron‐Cohen (2003) are investigated in three studies. Furthermore, we examine the notion that the ability to systemize should be independent of intelligence. In Studies 1 and 2, confirmatory factor analyses are used to examine the factor structure of the SQ. Study 3 examines the relationship between systemizing, mental rotation and intelligence. Studies 1 and 2 indicate that the SQ does not possess a unifactorial structure but is best considered as four related factors; Study 3 found that SQ was not related to intelligence, although mental rotation was. A four factor structure using fewer items was a better fit for the data than either the original version of the SQ or Wakabayashi et al.'s (2006) revised version. Overall these results support Baron‐Cohen's view that SQ is not related to intelligence. Although mental rotation is correlated to SQ, it is not the main determinant of SQ. The problems of self‐report measures are discussed along with the difficulties related to measuring systemizing.     

Comparison of cognitive-behavioural therapy and psychodynamic therapy in the treatment of anxiety among university students: an effectiveness study

The aim of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural (CBT) and psychodynamic (PDT) therapies in the treatment of anxiety among university students. To this aim, the Symptom Questionnaire (SQ) was completed by 30 students assigned to CBT and by 24 students assigned to PDT, both at the beginning and at the end of treatment. The main problem presented by all patients was anxiety. Except for one sub-scale, we observed significant differences in the scores of all sub-scales and scales of SQ, with lower scores at the end of the therapy, indicating lower distress, regardless of the type of treatment. The present findings suggest that both therapies are effective in the treatment of anxiety among university students.     

On relationships between digit ratio (2D:4D) and two fundamental cognitive drives,empathizing and systemizing,in Japanese sample

Degree of prenatal testosterone exposure in individuals is indexed by the biomarker, digit ratio, which is the length ratio between second and fourth digit fingers (2D:4D). Recent research has suggested a relationship between the digit ratio and individual differences in empathizing and systemizing, which are the two fundamental cognitive drives hypothesized by Baron-Cohen (2003). However, some studies on the relationship between digit ratio and empathy quotient (EQ) and systemizing quotient (SQ) have reported inconsistent results (Manning et al., 2010, von Horn et al., 2010, Voracek and Dressler, 2006). This study examined the relationship between digit ratio and EQ and SQ in a sample of Japanese university students (174 males and 174 females, mean age = 19.6). Results showed that, on average, male digit ratio was lower than female digit ratio, and digit ratio correlated positively with scores on EQ and negatively with scores on SQ, although correlation coefficients were very low. These results suggest that the fetal testosterone level as estimated by the digit ratio is related to individual differences in adult cognitive and behavioral patterns.     

Clocking g: Relating intelligence and measures of timed performance

The relationships between intelligence test scores and measures derived from reaction time (RT) and perceptual speed procedures were investigated in 137 twelve-year-old students with IQs ranging from 59 to 142. A range of intelligence tests were used and the scores factor analyzed to produce general, spatial and verbal factors. Test and factor scores were correlated with perceptual speed and with measures taken from 2, 4, and 8 choice RT tasks using a response keyboard upon which the subject's fingers directly rested, thus avoiding interpretive problems associated with a “home key.” Inspection time correlated poorly with intelligence. Only three of the RT measures produced correlations greater than .25 with the general factor. These were the slope of Hick's law, B, (correlation −.28), the 8 choice mean RT, RT8, (−.33) and the 8 choice standard deviation, SD8 (−.41), compared with the average intercorrelation between the intelligence measures of .40. Test-retest correlations of the RT measures, taken over a year for half the subjects, were low as reliability measures, with .35 for B, .52 for RT8, and .48 for SD8. Correlations of RT measures with spatial scores were not significantly greater than with verbal scores, suggesting that whatever relationship exists is with a general factor rather than only a spatial one.     

A general index of self-reported sleep: the sleep quotient

Utilizing multiple sleep measures, a practice common to virtually all sleep assessments, poses problems both for statistical analyses in the form of inflated Type I error rate and for interpretation by the inability to specify general sleep change. A sleep quotient (SQ) is proposed that appears to overcome these problems. The paper presents archival norms for self-report sleep data, demonstrates the use of these norms in transforming novel data to standardized units, and casts the standardized score in the form of an intelligence quotient, now called a SQ, with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Previously published data are reanalyzed by use of SQ scores, methods of interpreting SQ data are demonstrated, and advantages of SQ analyses are described. The SQ appears to be a valid, useful composite sleep index permitting the measurement of general sleep.     

On a test of dimensionality in redundancy analysis

Lazraq and Cléroux (Psychometrika, 2002, 411–419) proposed a test for identifying the number of significant components in redundancy analysis. This test, however, is ill-conceived. A major problem is that it regards each redundancy component as if it were a single observed predictor variable, which cannot be justified except for the rare situations in which there is only one predictor variable. Consequently, the proposed test leads to drastically biased results, particularly when the number of predictor variables is large, and it cannot be recommended for use. This is shown both theoretically and by Monte Carlo studies.The work reported in this paper was supported by Grant A6394 to the first author from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.     

Global Maladaptive Schemas, Negative Life Events, and Psychological Distress

The relationship between maladaptive self-schemas, negative life events, and psychological distress was assessed. The model tested was based on Young's (J. Young, 1990) diathesis–stress conceptualization of maladaptive schemas, which are believed to represent the cognitive diathesis underlying Axis II personality pathology. Young's model predicts that schemas are chronically activated in individuals with maladaptive schemas. Therefore, the experience of salient negative life events is less likely to exacerbate the level of distress experienced by those having maladaptive schemas. A nonclinical sample (N = 93) was assessed using the Schema Questionnaire (SQ), a measure of maladaptive self-schemas, a measure of negative life events, and several measures of psychological distress. Support was found for this prediction indicated by a Schema × Negative Life Events interaction in which the distress level of High SQ participants was less affected by negative life events compared to Low SQ participants.     

Are systemizing and autistic traits related to talent and interest in mathematics and engineering? Testing some of the central claims of the empathizing–systemizing theory

In two experiments, we tested some of the central claims of the empathizing–systemizing (E‐S) theory. Experiment 1 showed that the systemizing quotient (SQ) was unrelated to performance on a mathematics test, although it was correlated with statistics‐related attitudes, self‐efficacy, and anxiety. In Experiment 2, systemizing skills, and gender differences in these skills, were more strongly related to spatial thinking styles than to SQ. In fact, when we partialled the effect of spatial thinking styles, SQ was no longer related to systemizing skills. Additionally, there was no relationship between the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the SQ, or skills and interest in mathematics and mechanical reasoning. We discuss the implications of our findings for the E‐S theory, and for understanding the autistic cognitive profile.     

The impact of pre-sleep arousal state and strategy to control unwanted thoughts on sleep quality

Objective: It has been questioned whether elevated pre-sleep cognitive arousal contributes to poor sleep or whether it is the use of maladaptive thought control strategies, used to manage this cognitive arousal, that are responsible. The study aimed to examine how these factors – cognitive arousal (with and without anxiety) and maladaptive thought control strategies contribute to perceived sleep quality (SQ). Design: 129 “healthy adults” (46 males, 83 females) were exposed to picture-stimuli eliciting either anxious cognitive arousal or non-anxious cognitive arousal at bedtime. The groups were then randomly split and briefed to use either a cognitive distraction or cognitive suppression thought control strategy or no instructions were given (controls). Subjective SQ was measured immediately on waking. Results: Induced anxious cognitive arousal was associated with lower SQ compared to non-anxious cognitive arousal. Analyses revealed a significant interaction between arousal and the strategies used to control unwanted thoughts on SQ. When experiencing anxious cognitive arousal, the strategy of distraction was associated with poorer sleep outcomes. Conclusion: The findings suggest that the efficacy of differing thought control strategies vary depending upon whether cognitive arousal elicits anxiety or not. With that in mind, clinical implications in terms of augmenting the treatment of insomnia are discussed.     

Emotional and developmental aspects of human figure drawings in predicting school readiness

It was hypothesized that the combined use of Koppitz' developmental and emotional scores can improve the prediction of school readiness from children's Human Figure Drawings (HFD) when compared with each measure separately. The relationship of SES to HFD scores was also investigated. Multiple regression analysis was used with four factors—developmental score, emotional score, sex of the child, and SES of the school— to derive comparative correlations to test the hypotheses and to create a prediction equation to estimate the Metropolitan Readiness Test (MRT) scores of 141 kindergarten students ages 5 to 6 years representing three SES levels. Hit rate data were also presented. The results showed that the correlation for the combined developmental and emotional scores with the MRT score was not different than their separate correlations with the MRT. The SES factor was found to be significantly correlated (p < .01) with both developmental and emotional scores. The best single variable predictor of MRT scores was SES. The application of Bayes' Theorem of probability to the hit rate data showed that the nonreadiness predictions yielded by the developmental score, emotional score, and their combination are not better than chance predictions. Thus, it was found that Koppitz' developmental or emotional scoring systems are not viable screening instruments.     

The structure and function of selection, optimization, and compensation in middle adolescence: Theoretical and applied implications

Intentional self-regulation is a core facet of human functioning, involving people's modulation of their thoughts, attention, emotions, and behaviors to react to environmental demands and to influence their own development. Using data from Grades 8, 9, and 10 of the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development (PYD), the structure of intentional self-regulation, as indexed by a measure of selection (S), optimization (O), and compensation (C), or SOC, was assessed. Within-and-across-time links between SOC scores and indicators of PYD, and risk/problem behaviors were ascertained. A tripartite structure of intentional self-regulation was identified across all three grades, and SOC scores at all times positively covaried with PYD and negatively with risk/problem behaviors. Findings were strongest for overall SOC scores and for the components of “O” and “C.” We discuss the implications of these findings for youth development programs.     

Gender Differences in Cognitive and Emotional Adjustment to Traumatic Brain Injury

This study examined gender differences in cognitive and emotional status after traumatic brain injury (TBI) among 262 men and 140 women with TBI referred for neuropsychological evaluations. In this cross-sectional study, cognition was measured in terms of both absolute level of functioning (i.e., raw/standard scores) and estimated decline from premorbid levels expressed as z-deficit scores in the following domains: intelligence [Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS-R)], memory and attention [Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised (WMS-R)], processing speed (Trails A), and cognitive flexibility (Trails B). Emotional functioning was measured in terms of depression (Beck Depression Inventory) and general emotional distress (Brief Symptom Inventory). Kruskal–Wallis nonparametric one-way ANOVAs indicated that women and men differed significantly on 2 of 8 raw/standard cognitive scores [men demonstrated lower WMS-R General Memory (p < .05) and Trails B scores (p < .0001) and 4 of 8 relative decline scores [women demonstrated more estimated change in VIQ (Verbal IQ) [p < .0001], FSIQ (Full Scale IQ) [p < .01], and Attention (p < .01)]; men demonstrated greater estimated z-decline scores on Trails B (p < .01)]. Women reported significantly higher levels of depression (p < .01), but men endorsed significantly greater general psychological distress (p < .05). Research and assessment recommendations are suggested.