Finite and infinite state confusion models

A confusion model is defined as a model that decomposes response probabilities in stimulus identification experiments into perceptual parameters and response parameters. Historically, confusion models fall into two groups. Models in Group I, which includes Townsend's (Perception and Psychophysics, 1971, 9, 40–50) overlap model, were developed on the basis of the notion that stimulus identification is mediated by a finite number of internal states. We call the general class of models that have this processing interpretation finite state confusion models. Models in Group II, which includes Luce's (R. O. Luce et al., Eds., Handbook of Mathematical Psychology (Vol. I), New York: Wiley, 1963) biased choice model, were not developed on the basis of an explicit processing interpretation. It is shown here that models in Group II are not finite state confusion models. We prove in addition that except for Falmagne's (Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1972, 9, 206–224) simply biased model models in Group II belong to a certain class of infinite state confusion models, namely, models asserting that stimulus identification is mediated by a continuous space of vectors representing detector activation levels.     

Intermingling and confusion

Abstract

An understanding of Descartes’ concept of ‘confusion’ is important both for making sense of his epistemological enterprise and for grasping his doctrine of the union of mind and body. An analysis of Descartes’ notion of confusion is offered which is grounded in the (more or less controversial) theses that confused thoughts are thoughts, that confusion is confusion by a thinker of one thought with another, and that confusion both can and should be avoided or ‘undone’. This analysis takes its rise from his contrast between ‘confused’ and ‘distinct’ : it exhibits confusion as a failure to distinguish between meanings of systematically ambiguous expressions. This failure is sometimes due to ‘bad intellectual habits’ which in his view ought to be broken, sometimes to ‘nature’ (where the confusion is in general beneficial to our welfare). Paradigmatically these are expressions which refer ambiguously to substances (i.e. mind and body) which are ‘really distinct’. Moreover, his ‘disambiguations’ indicate a central but neglected aspect of his aim in philosophizing: he can be seen as engaged in a moral project of ‘philosophical therapy’.     

Inferential confusion in obsessive-compulsive disorder: the inferential confusion questionnaire

The current article represents the further validation of the construct of inferential confusion amongst clinical samples. Inferential confusion is proposed to be a meta-cognitive confusion particularly relevant to obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) that leads a person to confuse an imagined possibility with an actual probability. As such, it conceptualizes OCD as a form of belief disorder similar to a delusion or overvalued idea that is a product of distorted reasoning processes. In contrast, other cognitive models of OCD emphasize a phobic model of development in OCD, and thus consider the exaggerated interpretation of intrusions as an essential element in OCD. The present study administered a revised version of the Inferential Confusion Questionnaire, and the Obsessive Belief Questionnaire (OBQ), to a total of 183 participants in three clinical groups and a non-clinical control group. Results suggest that OCD, at least in part, follows a non-phobic model of development with inferential confusion significantly related to obsessive-compulsive symptoms independently of cognitive domains as measured by the OBQ, and mood states. Further, scores on inferential confusion were particularly high in those with OCD and delusional disorder as compared to anxious and non-clinical controls.     

Fission and confusion.

Catholic opponents of abortion and embryonic stem cell research usually base their position on a hylomorphic account of ensoulment at fertilization. They maintain that we each started out as one-cell ensouled organisms. Critics of this position argue that it is plagued by a number of intractable problems due to fission (twinning) and fusion. We're unconvinced that such objections to early ensoulment provide any reason to doubt the coherence of the hylomorphic account. However, we do maintain that a defense of ensoulment at fertilization must deny that we're essentially organisms.     

Experimental disorientation and conceptual confusion

Thirty-two subjects were examined on a visual matching task. They were tested for their ability to maintain an orientation with respect to a particular direction in the horizontal plane, while being kept in circumstances designed to minimize their input of information and create thereby some conceptual confusion.

The results suggest that subjects tend to make corrections as if they were in the same position in space throughout, even though they have no necessary reason for supposing this to be true and some reasons for supposing the opposite. It seemed that non-verbal information had to be presented to the subjects in order to suppress this tendency.

Voluntary rotation of the subject from one setting to the next produced no more than chance errors, while arbitrary rotations only produced errors when cues were inconsistent, or possibly where no cues were available at all. In the cases where no cues—or minimal cues-were available, assumptions were made by the subjects about the nature of the environment. This caused both errors and correct responses for reasons that were not justified by the evidence in the hands of the subject.

Introspective reports revealed some interesting results as to the cues utilized and concepts consciously formulated by the subjects for their use.     

Dichotic listening and left-right confusion

The present study examined the relationship between individual differences in dichotic listening (DL) and the susceptibility to left-right confusion (LRC). Thirty-six men and 59 women completed a consonant-vowel DL test, a behavioral LRC task, and an LRC self-rating questionnaire. Significant negative correlations between overall DL accuracy and LRC rates in men (behavioral task) and self-ratings in women, indicated that the more participants struggled with left-right discrimination, the fewer DL syllables they reported correctly. However, there was no relationship between LRC and the typical right ear advantage. Thus, there is a sex- and task-dependent relationship between LRC and overall DL accuracy, but not between LRC and ear asymmetry. It is concluded that (a) atypical ear asymmetries, as in certain clinical populations, cannot be explained by associated deficits in left-right discrimination, and (b) LRC can negatively affect task performance, even when participants do not have to make explicit "left" versus "right" decisions.     

Feature lists and confusion matrices

This report compares three feature list sets for capital letters, previously proposed by different investigators, on the ability of each to predict empirical confusion matrices. Toward this end, several variants of assumed information processes in recognition were also compared. The best model incorporated: (1) variable feature retrieval probabilities, (2) a goodness-of-match lower threshold below which guessing determines response, and (3) response bias on guessing trials. This model, when combined with one particular proposed feature list set, produced stress values of less than 9% in comparisons to empirical matrices for each of three different Ss. The feature retrieval probability vectors associated with these minimum-stress predictions were highly correlated ( \(\bar r = .83\) ), suggesting considerable generality of process and feature sets between Ss.     

Sexual confusion among certain college males

In dealing with college age (18-22) males, clinical observations have shown a fairly common inability to successfully form intimate relationships with same-age females. This problem often appears to be due to an inability to bond and trust that is rooted in the formative years in the nuclear home. When this happens, the young male frequently develops a fear of being sexually abnormal, perhaps even homosexual. This manifests itself in shame, anxiety, depression, denial, reaction formation, performance anxiety, concern about being found out, isolation, substance abuse and, occasionally, acting out. Getting such persons to admit these fears is generally extremely difficult, requiring gentle and empathetic, but persistent, probing on the part of the therapist. Therapy consists of understanding and acceptance by the client that these fears are most often reactive, that they are commonly held, and that when they are seen in proper perspective, they often diminish. The present paper reviews some of the literature on sexual developmental issues of the adolescent male as a backdrop for this problem. The specific difficulties related to reactive homophobia are explored, and some therapeutic approaches suggested.     

Trance and confusion in Gestalt therapy

This article introduces hypnotic principles of confusion and trance as fundamental operations in Gestalt therapy. A process is identified which utilizes perceptual shifts of reference as a method of organizing Gestalt techniques. The sequence of operations constituting the confusion process is outlined and developed in a psychotherapy session through the use of implication, dissociation, and embodiment. The development of this organization of Gestalt therapy is intended to enhance the strategic capacities of therapists.