Stimulus equivalence: testing Sidman's (2000) theory

Sidman's (2000) theory regarding the origin of equivalence relations predicts that a reinforcing stimulus common to distinct equivalence classes must drop out of the equivalence relations. This prediction was tested in the present study by arranging class-specific reinforcers, R1 and R2, following correct responding on the prerequisite conditional discriminations (Ax-Bx, Cx-Bx) for two stimulus classes, A1B1C1 and A2B2C2. A class-common reinforcer, R3, was presented following correct responding on the prerequisite conditional discriminations for a further two stimulus classes, A3B3C3 and A4B4C4. Sidman's theory predicts reinforcer inclusion within Classes 1 and 2 only, given this training arrangement. Experiment 1 tested for the emergence of four equivalence classes and of stimulus-reinforcer and reinforcer-stimulus relations in each class. Four of the 6 subjects demonstrated the reinforcer-based relations in all four equivalence classes, rather than in only those classes with a class-specific reinforcer, as Sidman's theory predicts. One of the remaining 2 subjects showed the reinforcer-based relations in three of the four classes. Experiment 2 extended these findings to document the emergence of interclass matching relations based on the common reinforcer R3, in 5 of 6 subjects, such that a Class 3 sample occasioned the selection of a Class 4 sample when the Class 3 comparison was absent, and similarly, a Class 4 sample occasioned the selection of a Class 3 comparison when the Class 4 comparison was absent. These interclass relations emerged despite the simultaneous maintenance of Class 3 and 4 baseline conditional discriminations, so that the Class 3 and 4 stimuli and reinforcer simultaneously were, and were not, part of a single larger equivalence class. These data are irreconcilable with Sidman's theory, and question the utility of the application of the equivalence relation in describing derived stimulus relations.     

Support for the cue-heuristic model is based on suboptimal observer performance: Response to Gilden and Proffitt (1994)

Gilden and Proffitt (1994) have derived support for their updated cue-heuristic model of mass discrimination in observed collisions from two experiments reported by Runeson and Vedeler (1993). However, these experiments are inadequate for theory testing because of confounding and lack of representative variation in parameters. Instead, extended analyses of the third of Runeson and Vedeler’s experiments are presented. It is shown that observers exclusively use collision-axis velocity components in conditions where the heuristic model asserts that only trajectory speeds are available. Moreover, the patterns of error predicted by the heuristic model do not occur. Overall, performance is closer to the ideal than to the predictions from any conceivable model based on elementaristic cues; hence an explanation in terms of advanced informative invariants is the more viable approach. The final discussion concerns the distortion of theory development that might be engendered by empirical data that represent suboptimal observer performance due to unfavorable testing conditions.     

A Note on (K)Nots: Response to Robert W. Kentridge''s Commentary

GY, an extensively studied human hemianope, is aware of salient visual events in his cortically blind field but does not call this "vision." To learn whether he has low-level conscious visual sensations or whether instead he has gained conscious knowledge about, or access to, visual information that does not produce a conscious phenomenal sensation, we attempted to image process a stimulus s presented to the impaired field so that when the transformed stimulus T(s) was presented to the normal hemifield it would cause a sensation similar to that caused by s in the impaired field. While degradation of contrast, spatio-temporal filtering, contrast reversal, and addition of smear and random blobs all failed to match the response to a flashed bar s(f), moving textures of low contrast were accepted to match the response to a moving contrast-defined bar, s(m). Orientation and motion direction discrimination of the perceptually matched stimuli [s(m) and T(s(m))] was closely similar. We suggest that the existence of a satisfactory match indicates that GY has phenomenal vision.     

Effect of observing response requirements to sample and comparison stimuli on the establishment of reject control (sample/S- relations)

The establishment of sample/S- relations (or reject control) during conditional discrimination training (AB, BC) affects transitivity (AC), equivalence (CA) and reflexivity (AA, BB, CC) test outcomes. The present study parametrically evaluated the effects of different observing patterns to comparison stimuli on the establishment of reject control during baseline conditional relation training. A matching-to-sample with observing requirements (MTS-OR) procedure was implemented during AB and BC conditional discrimination training. During training, the participants were required to observe the sample and incorrect comparison on every trial before responding. In addition, the participants were divided into three groups that differed regarding the percentage of training trials on which they were prevented from observing the correct comparison stimuli: 25%, 50%, and 75%. Once the mastery criteria were achieved during training, transitivity (AC), symmetry (BA, CB), equivalence (CA), and reflexivity (AA, BB, CC) tests were conducted with all comparison stimuli visible from the beginning. The results suggest that the number of errors during transitivity, equivalence, and reflexivity tests progressively increased as participants were prevented from observing the correct comparison on a greater number of trials during training. Symmetry test results, however, were not affected by the experimental manipulation. Moreover, the number of participants showing reject-control patterns during tests slightly increased and the number of participants showing select-control patterns decreased as a function of the number of trials on which the participants were prevented from observing the correct comparison. Thus, we suggest that observing patterns during training is a relevant variable that affects equivalence test outcomes.     

When intuition fails to align with data: A reply to Rossion (2013)

Holistic processing, a hallmark of face perception, is often measured in the so-called composite paradigm, in which participants are asked to match part of a stimulus while ignoring another part. In prior work, we recommended against the use of one version of the composite task we call the partial design, on the basis of confounds with response biases. Rossion wrote a lengthy piece that reviews the work that he has published using this design, raising a large number of criticisms, both about an alternative measure of holistic processing that we have used and advocated (which we call the complete design) and about our work in general. In this reply, we have limited our discussion to those issues that would be relevant to a researcher looking to decide which version of this composite paradigm to use, as we doubt a comprehensive reply would be of significant interest outside a very small circle.     

The perception of (naked only) bodies and faceless heads relies on holistic processing: Evidence from the inversion effect

Faces and bodies are more difficult to perceive when presented inverted than when presented upright (i.e., stimulus inversion effect), an effect that has been attributed to the disruption of holistic processing. The features that can trigger holistic processing in faces and bodies, however, still remain elusive. In this study, using a sequential matching task, we tested whether stimulus inversion affects various categories of visual stimuli: faces, faceless heads, faceless heads in body context, headless bodies naked, whole bodies naked, headless bodies clothed, and whole bodies clothed. Both accuracy and inversion efficiency score results show inversion effects for all categories but for clothed bodies (with and without heads). In addition, the magnitude of the inversion effect for face, naked body, and faceless heads was similar. Our findings demonstrate that the perception of faces, faceless heads, and naked bodies relies on holistic processing. Clothed bodies (with and without heads), on the other side, may trigger clothes-sensitive rather than body-sensitive perceptual mechanisms.     

Children's strategic compensation for size underconstancy: Dependence on distance and relation to reasoning ability

When asked to judge the size of a distant object, older children are more likely than younger ones to report deliberately inflating their judgements to compensate for size underconstancy (Granrud, in press). The current investigation examined whether use of this strategy depends on object distance and whether it is related to individual differences in reasoning, knowledge about size perception, or cognitive style. In two studies, children in Grades 1–3 estimated the size of a distant (61 m away) and near (6.1 m away) disc. In each, half of the children reported inflating their judgement of the distant disc to compensate for a tendency to underestimate its size, but only a few reported using this strategy for the near disc. Self-reported strategy users tended to either judge the distant disc accurately or to overestimate its size, whereas the other children tended to underestimate its size. Strategy reporters obtained higher scores on a test of verbal reasoning, but did not differ from the other children in reflectivity-impulsivity. In Study 1, strategy reporters also showed a better understanding of how distance affects the apparent size of objects in photographs. This understanding was strongly related to verbal reasoning ability. In Study 2, visuospatial reasoning ability was also found to predict who would report strategy use, and this predictive relation was independent of verbal reasoning ability.     

How to (and how not to) think about top-down influences on visual perception

The question of whether cognition can influence perception has a long history in neuroscience and philosophy. Here, we outline a novel approach to this issue, arguing that it should be viewed within the framework of top-down information-processing. This approach leads to a reversal of the standard explanatory order of the cognitive penetration debate: we suggest studying top-down processing at various levels without preconceptions of perception or cognition. Once a clear picture has emerged about which processes have influences on those at lower levels, we can re-address the extent to which they should be considered perceptual or cognitive. Using top-down processing within the visual system as a model for higher-level influences, we argue that the current evidence indicates clear constraints on top-down influences at all stages of information processing; it does, however, not support the notion of a boundary between specific types of information-processing as proposed by the cognitive impenetrability hypothesis.     

Critical issues in construct validation: Comment on Boyle and Lennon (1994)

In a recent article in this journal, Boyle and Lennon (1994) examined the reliability and validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI). However, several methodological and conceptual limits of their study suggest numerous alternative interpretations of their data. Methodological problems include a confounding of age and clinical status in their study, their inclusion of invalid PAI profiles, and use of an unusual sample for their purposes. Conceptual issues raised address the nature of a moderator variable, the interpretation of coefficient alpha, the stability of psychopathology, and the application of factor analysis to address construct validation issues.     

SWLS网络测验中可靠性变量的测量不变性检验

测量不变性在自我报告问卷或量表的心理测量应用中非常重要,是跨组比较的前提条件。测量不变性检验模型包括无任何约束的分组验证性因素分析(M_group)、形态的不变性(M1)、负荷的不变性(M2)、截距的不变性(M3)、严格不变性(M4)、因子方差-协方差的不变性(M5)以及潜均值的不变性(M6)。以生活满意度量表(SWLS)为例,针对1343名大学生(年龄17-25岁,20.01±1.53),进行有急事需要处理(否vs.是),答题时感受(积极情绪vs.消极情绪),噪音水平(无噪音vs.有噪音),答题用时(长vs.短),性别(男vs.女),户口(非农业户口vs.农业户口)等不同组别的生活满意度量表(SWLS)完全因素不变性检验。结果表明:(1)是否有急事需要处理的不变性成立(Δχ²=0.49～10.59,p>0.05);(2)答题时感受不变性部分成立,M5、M6模型不变性不成立(Δχ²₍₁=3.96、20.89,p<0.05);(3)噪音水平不变性部分成立,M3与M4模型不变性检验不成立(Δχ²₍₄₎=14.75,Δχ²₍₅₎=23.91,p<0.05);(4)答题用时不变性不成立(Δχ²=11.01～41.95,均p<0.05);(5)性别的不变性部分成立,M4模型不变性检验不成立(Δχ²₍₅₎=64.40,p<0.05);(6)户口的不变性部分成立,M6模型不变性检验不成立(Δχ²₍₁₎=11.49,p<0.05)。     

The ghost of Christmas future: didn't Scrooge learn to be good? Commentary on Magnuson,McMurray, Tanenhaus,and Aslin (2003)

Magnuson, McMurray, Tanenhaus, and Aslin [Cogn. Sci. 27 (2003) 285] suggest that they have evidence of lexical feedback in speech perception, and that this evidence thus challenges the purely feedforward Merge model [Behav. Brain Sci. 23 (2000) 299]. This evidence is open to an alternative explanation, however, one which preserves the assumption in Merge that there is no lexical–prelexical feedback during on‐line speech processing. This explanation invokes the distinction between perceptual processing that occurs in the short term, as an utterance is heard, and processing that occurs over the longer term, for perceptual learning.     

The imbibing idiot bias: Consuming alcohol can be hazardous to your (perceived) intelligence

Alcohol consumption and cognitive impairment frequently co-occur. We propose that the relationship is so familiar that exposure to alcohol cues primes expectations of cognitive impairment. Across five studies, we find that in the absence of any evidence of reduced cognitive performance, people who hold an alcoholic beverage are perceived to be less intelligent than those who do not, a mistake we term the imbibing idiot bias. In fact, merely priming observers with alcohol cues causes them to judge targets who hold no beverage at all as less intelligent. The bias is not driven by a belief that less intelligent people are more likely to consume alcohol. We find that the bias may be costly in professional settings. Job candidates who ordered wine during an interview held over dinner were viewed as less intelligent and less hireable than candidates who ordered soda. However, prospective candidates believe that ordering wine rather than soda will help them appear more intelligent.     

The response of counsellors to apartheid: A comment on nicholas (1993)

In response to Nicholas (1993), it is suggested that more direct confrontation on the response of counsellors to apartheid is needed. The relevance of the debate to counsellors outside South Africa, and the need to deconstruct the implicit political agendas within their own world views, is noted.     

Getting a grasp on action-specific scaling: A response to Witt (2017)

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review - Can higher level cognition directly influence visual spatial perception? Many recent studies have claimed so, on the basis that manipulating cognitive factors...     

Challenging assumptions about habit: A response to Hagger (2019)

Widely cited literature assumes habits to be: (1) specific and rigid behavioral responses; (2) in response to location- and timing-stable, external contexts, (3) goal-independent, and (4) enacted without conscious awareness. Hagger (2019) recently reviewed this literature as it applies to the physical activity domain. The purpose of this article is to challenge these assumptions in favor of a habit conceptualization that is more applicable to physical activity: (1) behavioral instigation and/or execution can be habitual, allowing for variable responses to cues; (2) stable contexts can be internal or functional (cued by a preceding action) but may vary in timing and physical location; (3) a shift from external to internal goal dependence may characterize habit development; and (4) types of automaticity other than purely nonconscious enactment may characterize habitual action. I present theory and research that supports these alternative characterizations and discuss their ramifications for physical activity adoption and maintenance via habit.     

Religiosity and social desirability: A response to Eysenck (1999)

Recent studies have shown that delusion-like experiences (DLEs) are common among general populations. This study investigates whether the prevalence of these experiences are linked to the embracing of New Age thought. Logistic regression analyses were performed using data derived from a large community sample of young adults (N = 3777). Belief in a spiritual or higher power other than God was found to be significantly associated with endorsement of 16 of 19 items from Peters et al. (1999b Peters, ER, Joseph, SA and Garety, PA. 1999b. Measurement of delusional ideation in the normal population: Introducing the PDI (Peters et al. Delusions Inventory). Schizophrenia Bulletin, 25(3): 553–576. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) Delusional Inventory following adjustment for a range of potential confounders, while belief in God was associated with endorsement of four items. A New Age conception of the divine appears to be strongly associated with a wide range of DLEs. Further research is needed to determine a causal link between New Age philosophy and DLEs (e.g. thought disturbance, suspiciousness, and delusions of grandeur).