Early language development after peri-natal stroke

Early unilateral brain damage has different implications for language development than does similar damage in adults, given the plasticity of the developing brain. The goal of this study was to examine early markers of language and gesture at 12 and 24 months in children who had peri-natal right hemisphere (RH) or left hemisphere (LH) stroke (n = 71), compared with typically developing controls (n = 126). Parents completed the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI): Words & Gestures (12 month data point), or the CDI: Words & Sentences (24 month data point). Statistical analyses were performed on percentile scores using analysis of variance techniques. At 12 months, there were no differences among groups for Words Understood, Phrases Understood or Words Produced. At 24 months, both lesion groups scored significantly lower than controls on Word Production, Irregular Words, and Mean Length of Sentences, but lesion groups did not differ from each other. In a longitudinal subset of participants, expressive vocabulary failed to progress as expected from 12 to 24 months in the stroke group, with no differences based on lesion side. Gesture and word production were dissociated in the left hemisphere subjects. Findings suggest that early language development after peri-natal stroke takes a different course from that of typical language development, perhaps reflecting brain reorganization secondary to plasticity in the developing brain.     

Children's understanding of communicative intentions in the middle of the second year of life

Two tasks were administered to 40 children aged from 16 to 20 months (mean age = 18;1), to evaluate children's understanding of declarative and informative intention [Behne, T., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2005). One-year-olds comprehend the communicative intentions behind gestures in a hiding game. Developmental Science, 8, 492–499; Camaioni, L., Perucchini, P., Bellagamba, F., & Colonnesi, C. (2004). The role of declarative pointing in developing a theory of mind. Infancy, 5, 291–308]. In the first task, children had to respond to the experimenter who pointed at a distal object; in the second task, children had to find a toy in a hiding game after the experimenter indicated the correct location either by pointing or by gazing. In the first task, most children responded to the declarative gesture by “commenting” on the pointed object instead of just looking; however, looking responses were more frequent than commenting responses. In the second task, children chose the correct location of the object significantly more frequently when the informative gesture was the point than when it was the gaze; moreover, there were significantly more correct choices than incorrect choices in the point but not in the gaze condition. Finally, no significant relation was found between tasks. Taken together, the findings support the view that infants’ developing understanding of communicative intention is a complex process in which general cognitive abilities and contextual factors are equally important.     

Anticipatory and compensatory postural adjustments in sitting in children with cerebral palsy

The aim of this study was to examine postural control in children with cerebral palsy performing a bilateral shoulder flexion to grasp a ball from a sitting posture. The participants were 12 typically developing children (control) without cerebral palsy and 12 children with cerebral palsy (CP). We analyzed the effect of ball mass (1 kg and 0.18 kg), postural adjustment (anticipatory, APA, and compensatory, CPA), and groups (control and CP) on the electrical activity of shoulder and trunk muscles with surface electromyography (EMG). Greater mean iEMG was seen in CPA, with heavy ball, and for posterior trunk muscles (p < .05). The children with CP presented the highest EMG and level of co-activation (p < .05). Linear regression indicated a positive relationship between EMG and aging for the control group, whereas that relationship was negative for participants with CP. We suggest that the main postural control strategy in children is based on corrections after the beginning of the movement. The linear relationship between EMG and aging suggests that postural control development is affected by central nervous disease which may lead to an increase in muscle co-activation.     

Young children’s acquisition of knowledge about the Earth: A longitudinal study

This longitudinal study examined the acquisition of early knowledge of astronomy to determine whether children’s knowledge at any point in time is consistent with a naive “mental model.” Children were first assessed by means of open questions and drawing tasks at 2 and 3 years of age (N = 143). The knowledge was reassessed over the course of the following 3 years. The results showed that although a few indications of naive mental models were found, in most cases young children’s knowledge was fragmented and accurate knowledge was often expressed alongside inaccurate/synthetic ideas. Furthermore, it was shown that children need to know scientific facts before they start taking the global perspective when describing the world and, when faced with ambiguous open questions, children often experience difficulties that can induce them to change the types of answers they provide.     

Learning what children know about space from looking at their hands: the added value of gesture in spatial communication

This article examines two issues: the role of gesture in the communication of spatial information and the relation between communication and mental representation. Children (8-10 years) and adults walked through a space to learn the locations of six hidden toy animals and then explained the space to another person. In Study 1, older children and adults typically gestured when describing the space and rarely provided spatial information in speech without also providing the information in gesture. However, few 8-year-olds communicated spatial information in speech or gesture. Studies 2 and 3 showed that 8-year-olds did understand the spatial arrangement of the animals and could communicate spatial information if prompted to use their hands. Taken together, these results indicate that gesture is important for conveying spatial relations at all ages and, as such, provides us with a more complete picture of what children do and do not know about communicating spatial relations.     

Classroom problem behavior and teacher-child relationships in kindergarten: The moderating role of classroom climate

Young children with problem behavior in the classroom are at risk for developing more conflictual and less close relationships with their teachers. Two studies in kindergarten (N = 3798; N = 237) shed light on some aspects of classroom climate that can moderate this risk for relational problems. Results showed problematic classroom compositions, in terms of high average levels of internalizing or externalizing behavior, to exacerbate the risk for teachers to form more conflictual relationships with children showing externalizing behavior. Additionally, observed emotional support of teachers was found to be protective for the relational functioning of children at risk due to maladjusted behavior. Specifically, with emotionally supportive teachers, children who expose internalizing or externalizing behavior are no longer at risk for developing less close or more conflictual relationships with their teachers respectively. Practical implications and limitations of the studies are reported and suggestions are made for future research.     

Does language about similarity play a role in fostering similarity comparison in children?

Commenting on perceptual similarities between objects stands out as an important linguistic achievement, one that may pave the way towards noticing and commenting on more abstract relational commonalities between objects. To explore whether having a conventional linguistic system is necessary for children to comment on different types of similarity comparisons, we observed four children who had not been exposed to usable linguistic input - deaf children whose hearing losses prevented them from learning spoken language and whose hearing parents had not exposed them to sign language. These children developed gesture systems that have language-like structure at many different levels. Here we ask whether the deaf children used their gestures to comment on similarity relations and, if so, which types of relations they expressed. We found that all four deaf children were able to use their gestures to express similarity comparisons (point to cat + point to tiger) resembling those conveyed by 40 hearing children in early gesture + speech combinations (cat + point to tiger). However, the two groups diverged at later ages. Hearing children, after acquiring the word like, shifted from primarily expressing global similarity (as in cat/tiger) to primarily expressing single-property similarity (as in crayon is brown like my hair). In contrast, the deaf children, lacking an explicit term for similarity, continued to primarily express global similarity. The findings underscore the robustness of similarity comparisons in human communication, but also highlight the importance of conventional terms for comparison as likely contributors to routinely expressing more focused similarity relations.     

The sleep patterns and problems of clinically anxious children

Childhood sleep problems have been associated with a range of adverse cognitive and academic outcomes, as well as increased impulsivity and emotional disorders such as anxiety and depression. The aim of the study was to examine subjective reports of sleep-related problems in children with anxiety disorders during school and weekend nights. Thirty-seven children with clinically-diagnosed anxiety disorders and 26 non-clinical children aged 7-12 years completed an on-line sleep diary to track sleep patterns across school nights and weekend nights. Anxious children reported going to bed significantly later (p = 0.03) and had significantly less sleep (p = 0.006) on school nights compared to non-anxious children. No significant differences in sleep onset latency, number of awakenings or time awake during the night, daytime sleepiness, or fatigue were found between the two groups. On the weekends, anxious children fell asleep quicker and were less awake during the night than on weeknights. School-aged anxiety disordered children showed a sleep pattern that differs from their non-anxious peers. Although the mean 30 min less sleep experienced by anxious children may initially seem small, the potential consequences on daytime performance from an accumulation of such a sleep deficit may be significant, and further investigation is warranted.     

Covering all the BAS’s: A closer look at the links between BIS,BAS, and socio-emotional functioning in childhood

The purpose of this study was to investigate associations between the BIS, BAS, and socio-emotional functioning in childhood. Participants were 368 children (181 boys) ranging in age from 9 to 13 years (M_age = 10.16, SD = .95). Children provided self-report assessments of BIS/BAS sensitivity, indices of internalizing problems (e.g., depression, social anxiety, loneliness), and perceptions of their peer relations. Parents also rated child internalizing and externalizing problems. Results from confirmatory factor-analysis suggested that the three-factor solution for the BAS (typically reported in adult samples) provided a better fit of the data than a one-factor (typically employed in previous studies with children). Moreover, BAS subscales were associated differentially with different indices of socio-emotional functioning. Support for the joint subsystems hypothesis was also found, with specific BAS subscales serving as moderators of the relations between the BIS and socio-emotional functioning.     

Early Student-Teacher Relationships of Children With and Without Intellectual Disability: Contributions of Behavioral, Social, and Self-Regulatory Competence

We investigated the student-teacher relationships (STRs) of 6-year-old children with (n = 58) and without (n = 82) intellectual disability (ID). We also examined early (age 3) and concurrent (age 6) child behavioral, self-regulatory, and social characteristics as predictors of age 6 STR quality. Children with ID experienced significantly poorer relationships with their teachers, marked by less closeness and more conflict and dependency, compared to typically developing children. This group difference was not accounted for entirely by IQ differences. Child characteristics and parent-child interactional variables at age 3 and 6 accounted for 53.5% of the variance in age 6 STR quality. The relation between ID status and STR quality was fully mediated by three child variables-global self-regulation at age 3, mother-reported behavior problems at age 6, and teacher-reported behavior problems at age 6- and was partially mediated by mother-reported behavior problems at age 3. Our findings demonstrate the importance of child behavioral and social characteristics in predicting relationships with teachers for children with and without ID.     

Energy expenditure and enjoyment of small-sided soccer games in overweight boys

When space is limited, it would be preferable to play multiple small-sided soccer games (SSG) simultaneously on small courts, rather than a single game, to maximise participation. Given that the layouts of most gymnasiums incorporate several badminton courts, we examined whether energy expenditure and enjoyment of SSG on a badminton court (6.1 × 13.4 m) were comparable to larger court dimensions (volleyball and basketball courts; 9 × 18 m and 14.2 × 26.5 m, respectively). Twelve overweight boys played 30 min three-a-side SSG on each court in a counterbalanced design. During SSG, energy expenditure was estimated via accelerometry, heart rate was monitored and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and enjoyment were obtained. Energy expenditure was similar between badminton and volleyball courts, but lower than the basketball court (p < .05). Mean% HR_max was significantly lower on the badminton court than the volleyball and basketball courts (p < .05). There was no effect of court size on RPE or enjoyment (p > .05). These results suggest that it may be preferable to play SSG on a larger court when space is available. Alternatively, when space is limited the difference in energy expenditure between court sizes can be accounted for by an additional 2.3 min of play on a badminton court.     

Age and schooling effects on early literacy and phoneme awareness

Previous research on age and schooling effects is largely restricted to studies of children who begin formal schooling at 6 years of age, and the measures of phoneme awareness used have typically lacked sensitivity for beginning readers. Our study addresses these issues by testing 4 to 6 year-olds (first 2 years of formal schooling in the United Kingdom) on a sensitive dynamic measure of phoneme awareness and tests of early literacy. There were significant effects of both age and schooling on the dynamic measure of phoneme awareness, word reading, spelling, and letter name knowledge, but there were no significant Age × Time interactions. This indicates that older children within this age group generally outperform their younger classmates (although they do not make faster progress) and that this advantage is developed prior to the start of school.     

Computer-assisted intervention for children with low numeracy skills

We present results of a computer-assisted intervention (CAI) study on number skills in kindergarten children. Children with low numeracy skill (n = 30) were randomly allocated to two treatment groups. The first group played a computer game (The Number Race) which emphasized numerical comparison and was designed to train number sense, while the other group played a game (Graphogame-Math) which emphasized small sets of exact numerosities by training matching of verbal labels to visual patterns and number symbols. Both groups participated in a daily intervention session for three weeks. Children's performance in verbal counting, number comparison, object counting, arithmetic, and a control task (rapid serial naming) were measured before and after the intervention. Both interventions improved children's skills in number comparison, compared to a group of typically performing children (n = 30), but not in other areas of number skills. These findings, together with a review of earlier computer-assisted intervention studies, provide guidance for future work on CAI aiming to boost numeracy development of low performing children.     

Timing matters: Negative emotion elicited 5 min but not 30 min or 45 min after learning enhances consolidation of internal-monitoring source memory

Two experiments examined the time-dependent effects of negative emotion on consolidation of item and internal-monitoring source memory. In Experiment 1, participants (n = 121) learned a list of words. They were asked to read aloud half of the words and to think about the remaining half. They were instructed to memorize each word and its associative cognitive operation (“reading” versus “thinking”). Immediately following learning they conducted free recall and then watched a 3-min either neutral or negative video clip when 5 min, 30 min or 45 min had elapsed after learning. Twenty-four hours later they returned to take surprise tests for item and source memory. Experiment 2 was similar to Experiment 1 except that participants, without conducting an immediate test of free recall, took tests of source memory for all encoded words both immediately and 24 h after learning. Experiment 1 showed that negative emotion enhanced consolidation of item memory (as measured by retention ratio of free recall) regardless of delay of emotion elicitation and that negative emotion enhanced consolidation of source memory when it was elicited at a 5 min delay but reduced consolidation of source memory when it was elicited at a 30 min delay; when elicited at a 45 min delay, negative emotion had little effect. Furthermore, Experiment 2 replicated the enhancement effect on source memory in the 5 min delay even when participants were tested on all the encoded words. The current study partially replicated prior studies on item memory and extends the literature by providing evidence for a time-dependent effect of negative emotion on consolidation of source memory based on internal monitoring.     

Supporting children’s counterfactual thinking with alternative modes of responding

To speculate about counterfactual worlds, children need to ignore what they know to be true about the real world. Prior studies yielding individual differences data suggested that counterfactual thinking may be related to overcoming prepotent responses. In two experiments, we manipulated how 3- to 5-year-olds responded to counterfactual conditional and syllogism tasks. In Experiment 1 (N = 39), children’s performance improved on both conditional and syllogism tasks when they responded with an arrow rather than pointing with a finger. In Experiment 2 (N = 42), 3- and 4-year-olds benefited from both an arrow manipulation and, separately, the introduction of a delay before responding. We suggest that both manipulations help children to overcome an impulsive prepotent response to counterfactual questions arising from a default assumption that information about the past is true.     

Inter-limb coordination and control in boys with and without DCD in ball catching

The purpose of the study was to examine the nature of inter-limb coordination and control, exhibited by ten boys with (M = 10.5 years, SD = 1.0) and without Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), in a ball catching task across different ball speeds. In line with the predictions of coordinated structure theory boys who were typically developing preserved strong and effective temporal relations when catching balls in baseline and fast conditions. Boys with DCD exhibited temporal symmetry in baseline but not in fast attempts, where the decoupling was uniformed across the group, coinciding with failures on ≥ 50% of the attempts. In terms of stability, no differences in intra-individual variability were observed between the groups. The analysis of spatial and temporal adaptations showed that boys who were typically developing, in essence, covered the same “ground” by decreasing their movement time. The opposite was true for boys with DCD who contacted the ball closer to the body, while failing to adapt the velocity of their hands. Taken together, both groups exhibited strong and stable coordinative relations, in a steady-state but not in a fast condition, where all boys with DCD failed to preserve the desired symmetry. This decoupling also coincided with different and less effective spatio-temporal adaptations at the effector level. Thus, it appears that movement control, hence flexibility of their synergistic relations, represents a movement limiter for boys with DCD who exhibit specific balls skills issues, at inter-limb level of organization. It should be noted, however, that large intra-group variance observed across some variables warrants caution when interpreting the aggregate data.     

An Uncontrolled Examination of a 5-Day Intensive Treatment for Pediatric OCD

This study examined the feasibility of a 5-day intensive treatment for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Fifteen children with OCD received a week-long treatment based on exposure and response prevention (ERP). The intervention also emphasized teaching children and parents how to conduct ERP independently at home. All families completed the week-long treatment and symptoms improved significantly as measured by self- and parent-report forms, as well as the Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale, F(2, 22) = 45.67, p < .05. Total CY-BOCS scores decreased significantly from pretreatment (M = 28.00, SD = 4.24) to posttreatment [M = 16.00, SD = 6.0, F(1, 11) = 34.38, p < .05] and from posttreatment to 5-month follow-up [M = 11.5, SD = 7.3; F(1, 11) = 12.94, p < .05]. This level of improvement was consistent with other intensive treatments for pediatric OCD. The study suggests that the 5-day program is a promising treatment for children with OCD who do not have access to local providers.     

A randomized controlled trial of the impact of a teacher classroom management program on the classroom behavior of children with and without behavior problems

This randomized controlled trial (RCT) evaluated the efficacy of the Incredible Years (IY) Teacher Classroom Management (TCM; Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2002) program to assess whether training teachers in IY-TCM principles improve teacher behavior, whether any observed improvements impact pupil behavior classroom-wide, and whether these effects can be demonstrated with children at risk of developing conduct problems. Six intervention and six control classrooms comprising 12 teachers and 107 children (aged 3 to 7 years) were recruited. Children were screened for high or low behavior problems using the cut-off points of the teacher-rated Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). The primary outcome measure was independent classroom observations using the Teacher–Pupil Observation Tool (Martin et al., 2010). Multilevel modeling analyses were conducted to examine the effect of the intervention on teacher, classroom, and child behavior. Results showed a significant reduction in classroom off-task behavior (d = 0.53), teacher negatives to target children (d = 0.36), target child negatives towards the teacher (d = 0.42), and target child off-task behavior (d = 0.48). These preliminary results demonstrate the potential impact of IY-TCM on both teacher and child behavior.     

Processing of non-canonical word-order: A case-series on lesion-induced reorganized language and age-effects in typical development

Complex grammatical structures are mastered late in language acquisition. We studied age-effects on performance in object topicalization in 48 typically developing German-speaking participants (aged 8–30 years) and in five patients (children and adolescents) with lesion-induced atypical language representation. Production was tested by a sentence repetition task, comprehension by an acting out task. Three topicalized conditions with differing disambiguation (agreement, case, and case plus agreement) were contrasted with canonical control sentences.     

Deontic and epistemic reasoning in children

It is widely accepted that adults show an advantage for deontic over epistemic reasoning. Two published studies (Cummins, 1996b; Harris and Núñez, 1996, Experiment 4) found evidence of this “deontic advantage” in preschool-aged children and are frequently cited as evidence that preschoolers show the same deontic advantage as adults. However, neither study has been replicated, and it is not clear from either study that preschoolers were showing the deontic advantage under the same conditions as adults. The current research investigated these issues. Experiment 1 attempted to replicate both Cummins’s and Harris and Núñez’s studies with 3- and 4-year-olds (N = 56), replicating the former with 4-year-olds and the latter with both 3- and 4-year-olds. Experiment 2 modified Cummins’s task to remove the contextual differences between conditions, making it more similar to adult tasks, finding that 4-year-olds (n = 16) show no evidence of the deontic advantage when no authority figure is present in the deontic condition, whereas both 7-year-olds (n = 16) and adults (n = 28) do. Experiment 3 removed the authority figure from the deontic condition in Harris and Núñez’s task, again finding that 3- and 4-year-olds (N = 28) show no evidence of the deontic advantage under these conditions. These results suggest that for preschoolers, the deontic advantage is reliant on particular contextual cues such as the presence of an authority figure, in the deontic condition. By 7 years of age, however, children are reasoning like adults and show evidence of the advantage when no such contextual cues are present.