婴儿气质及母亲的养育态度与亲子日常活动的关系

本研究以430名母亲及其婴儿作为研究对象,应用婴儿气质行为评定量表(Infant Behavior Questionnaires,IBQ)、养育压力量表(ParentingStress Index,PSI)及母亲与婴儿的日常活动问卷对6个月婴儿气质、母亲的养育态度及母亲与婴儿的日常活动进行调查。结果表明婴儿气质中的积极情绪与母亲-婴儿日常活动有显著的正相关关系;母亲的养育态度,主要是母亲对养育困扰的评价,与亲子日常活动中的认知刺激活动呈显著的负相关性;多元回归分析表明母亲的受教育水平在婴儿气质、母亲的养育态度与亲子日常认知刺激活动之间的关系中具有调节作用。     

Mother and father adjustment during early parenthood: the roles of infant temperament and coparenting relationship quality

We explored how parent gender, infant temperament, and coparenting dynamics worked together to shape mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms, stress, and parental efficacy during early parenthood. We were interested in the coparenting relationship as a context that shapes how parents respond to their infant's temperamental qualities. Participants were 139 couples who had recently given birth to their first child. Parent reports of temperament were collected when the infant was 4–8 months old and reports of coparenting and parent adjustment were collected at 13 months. Two-level random intercept models revealed interactions between temperament and coparenting, highlighting the family system as a context for how men and women adapt to their parenting role. There was little evidence for mother–father differences in these associations.     

Mother's personality and infant temperament

We examined if perfectionism and the perception of being an anxious person were associated with more negative infant temperament ratings by the mothers. 386 women (mean age = 30.08; standard deviation = 4.21) in their last trimester of pregnancy completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and an item about their perception of being or not an anxious person. The Portuguese version of the Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies and the Operational Criteria Checklist for Psychotic Illness were used to generate diagnoses according to DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria. After delivery, women completed eight items of the Difficult Infant Temperament Questionnaire (developed by our team) and filled in, again, the BDI-II and were interviewed with the DIGS. Women with depression (DSM-IV/ICD-10) and probable cases of depression using different cut-offs adjusted to Portuguese prevalence (BDI-II), in pregnancy and postpartum, were excluded. The Difficult Infant Temperament Questionnaire showed to have factorial validity and internal consistency. There was a statistically significant negative correlation between perfectionism total scale score and item 6 from the temperament scale (“is your baby irritable or fussy?”). Considering MPS 3-factor solution found for pregnancy there was also a statistically significant negative correlation between SOP and the same item. Women with low SOP differed from those with medium and high SOP in the total temperament score. Moreover, the low SOP group differed from the medium group on items three and four scores. There were no significant associations with SPP, which is the dimension more closely associated with negative outcomes. There was an association between anxiety trait status (having it or not) and scoring low, medium or high in the infant temperament scale. The proportion of anxious vs. non-anxious women presenting a high score on the infant temperament scale was higher (24.2% vs. 12.9%). Linear regressions showed that SOP (low vs. medium/high) offered a significant contribution to the prediction of total temperament scale score and items 3 and 4 scores, but a logistic regression did not confirm trait anxiety as a significant predictor of mother's infant temperament perception. Concluding, a major result concerns the fact that higher levels of adaptive perfectionism (i.e. SOP) are associated (and predict) a less negative view of their infant's temperament. These results on the effect of mother's anxiety and perfectionism on the child temperament perception might have treatment implications. As perfectionism is not always maladaptive, some of its positive features could be used to enhance women's self-efficacy/sense of parental competence in their role as mothers and positive affect towards their infants. Also, antenatal interventions aimed at minimising anxiety could help to optimise infant temperament outcomes, which could, eventually, also, lead to subsequent maternal and infant mental health better outcomes.     

Early mother-infant interaction during breast- and bottle-feeding

Thirty-two primiparous mothers with their neonates, 20 breast-fed and 12 bottle-fed, were videotaped during feeding longitudinally (at 3, 10 days, 1 and 3 months) in order to investigate whether patterns of mother-infant interaction observed during breast- and bottle-feeding differ also for behavior not directly related to sucking. Infant state, sucking behavior, mother behavior and mother-infant interaction were analyzed by both sequential and non sequential analysis. Results suggest that the method of feedings affects mother-infant interaction observed during and just after feeding also for some behavior not directly related to sucking. The percentage of mutual touch, tactile stimulation and mother's gaze to infant was significantly more elevated during breast-feeding. Independently of the feeding mode, significant sequential dependencies between infant state of alertness and auditory stimulation, and auditory stimulation and mutual gaze were found.     

Early Temperament and Attachment Security with Mothers and Fathers as Predictors of Toddler Compliance and Noncompliance

This longitudinal study (n = 106) examined associations between temperament, attachment, and styles of compliance and noncompliance. Infant negative temperamental reactivity was reported by mothers at 3, 5 and 7 months. Infant attachment was assessed (Strange Situation) at 12 (mothers) and 14 months (fathers). Toddlers' styles of compliance/noncompliance were measured using two laboratory contexts (clean‐up/delay) at 20 months. Results indicated that temperament and attachment predicted toddler behaviour. Toddlers who were secure with mothers and low in temperamental negative reactivity showed more committed compliance than those who were insecure and low in negative reactivity or secure and high in negative reactivity. In addition, interactions revealed that relations between infant–mother attachment and defiance depended on infant–father attachment security, temperament and context. Findings highlight the differential and complex roles of temperament and attachment as potential precursors of later social competence. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cortisol reactivity and negative affect among preterm infants at 12 months during a mother-infant interaction task

The purpose of this study was to investigate correlates of preterm (PT) infant’s cortisol reactivity and the association to infant negative affect, during a mother-infant interaction procedure. Participants included 48 infants born prematurely (gestational age < 37 weeks) and their mothers, assessed when infants were 12 months old corrected for prematurity. The examined variables comprised both neonatal and environmental dimensions including maternal interactive behavior. Infant negative affect and maternal interactive behavior were assessed with a standardized mother-infant interaction task. A baseline infant saliva sample was collected before the interaction began, and a second sample after the interaction episodes ended. Results revealed that decrease of infant’s cortisol concentration was significantly associated with the exposure to more sensitive, and less intrusive maternal behaviors. However, once controlled for neonatal risk, family SES and maternal psychological distress, the associations were rendered non-significant. Although the association between cortisol reactivity and negative affect trended toward significance, maternal intrusiveness was the only significant predictor of observed infant negative affect. Findings suggest the importance of primary relational experiences on PT infants' early regulatory competencies.     

Nonmaternal care hours and temperament predict infants’ proximity-seeking behavior and attachment subgroups

Using the NICHD Early Childcare dataset (N = 1281), this study examined whether infant temperament and the amount of time infants spend in nonmaternal care independently predict (1) the likelihood that they seek comfort from their mother when needed and (2) placement in a particular subgroup of infant-mother attachment patterns. Mothers reported the number of hours their infant spent in nonmaternal care each month and their infant's difficulty adapting to novel stimuli at 6 months. The degree to which 15-month-old infants seek comfort from their mother during reunion episodes in the Strange Situation was observed using two behavioral scales (“proximity seeking” and “contact maintaining”). Their average score forms the outcome variable of “proximity-seeking behavior.” The other outcome variables were the subgroups of infant-mother attachment patterns: two subgroups for insecure babies (resistant and avoidant) and four subgroups for secure babies (B1, B2, B3, and B4). Easy adaptability to novel stimuli and long hours of nonmaternal care independently predicted a low level of proximity-seeking behavior. These predictors also increased the likelihood of an insecure infant being classified as avoidant (vs. resistant). A secure infant with these same predictors was most likely to be classified as B1, followed by B2, and then B3, with B4 being the least likely classification. Although previous studies using the NICHD dataset found that hours of nonmaternal care had no main effect on infants’ attachment security (vs. insecurity), this study demonstrates that hours of nonmaternal care predict the subcategories of infant-mother attachment.     

Relationships between early behavioural characteristics and temperament at 6 years

The aim of this study was to analyze the extent to which the relations and the stability of the neonatal behaviour and the infant behaviour at both 4 and 12 months could be used to predict the infant temperament at 6 years. Seventy-two full-term, normal-weight, healthy children were followed from 3 days postpartum to 6 years. Neonatal behaviour at 3 and 30 days was assessed using the Neonatal Behaviour Assessment Scale (NBAS), behaviour at 4 and 12 months was assessed using the Infant Behaviour Record (IBR) from the Bayley Scales for Infant Development (BSID) and temperament at 6 years was assessed using the Dimensions of Temperament Survey-Revised (DOTS-R). Negative and positive affectivity and attention were the factors extracted from the behaviours of the IBR. Our results showed a low/moderate correlation between neonatal behaviour on the one hand and behaviour at 4 and 12 months and temperament at 6 years on the other hand. The motor performance, orientation and ANS stability of the neonate at 3 and 30 days were predictors of positive and negative affectivity at 4 months. State regulation and ANS stability at 3 days were predictors of negative affectivity and attention respectively at 12 months. Negative affectivity at 12 months and endurance at 30 days were predictors of general activity and persistence/attention at 6 years. Also, an inverse relation was found between state regulation at 30 days and general activity at 6 years, and a positive relation was found between attention at 4 months and persistence/attention at 6 years. We conclude that neonatal behaviour and behaviour in the first year of life are good predictors of temperament at 6 years and that early negative affectivity has an important role on infant temperament development.     

Maternal correlates of infant temperament ratings and of infant-mother attachment: A longitudinal study

This study examined longitudinally correlates of mothers' ratings of their infant's temperament and of the infant-mother attachment relationship. Measures included Carey's Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire, child-rearing attitudes, psychophysiological responses to an unfamiliar infant's crying pre- and postdelivery, psychophysiological responses to the mother's own infant's crying, and assessments of infant-mother attachment. The results indicated that maternal ratings of infant temperament at 4 months were significantly related not only to concurrent cry responsiveness but also to cry responsiveness and child-rearing attitudes predelivery, as well as to the quality of attachment at 1 year. It is suggested that a differential response pattern of mothers of “easy” and of “difficult” infants, which affects the developing infant-mother bond, may in part originate in maternal dispositions existing prior to parenthood.     

Early infant temperament shapes the nature of mother-infant bonding in the first postpartum year

ObjectiveThis study examined longitudinal relations between maternal bonding and infant temperament in the first nine months after birth.DesignOur sample consisted of 281 women, enrolled at five maternity hospitals, who completed questionnaires during the first week (T1), at six weeks (T2) and nine months postpartum (T3). Maternal bonding was assessed using the Mother-to-Infant Bonding Scale at T1 and T2 and the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire at T3. Infant temperament was measured using the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire, completed by the mothers at T2 and T3.ResultsThe results of a path model showed a long-term effect flowing from the child to the mother, with infant temperament at T2 predicting maternal bonding at T3 over and above stability in bonding. At T3, bonding was linked more strongly to child temperament at T2 than to child temperament assessed concurrently at T3. Maternal bonding did predict infant temperament, but this was true only of bonding reported at T1 and infant temperament at T2, that is, not of bonding assessed at T2 and infant temperament at T3.ConclusionOur results indicate that maternal bonding in the first week postpartum may temporarily affect child temperament, but infant’s temperament several weeks after birth – rather than several months postpartum – plays a pervasive role in shaping the long-lasting nature of the mother-child relationship. Our findings thus seem to support the suggestion that the early postpartum weeks represent an important period in the development of maternal bonding.     

Functioning within a relationship: mother-infant synchrony and infant sleep

The aim of this study was to investigate the coupling of the biological system of infant sleep and the social system of mother-infant synchrony. Before birth and shortly after birth the systems appear to be connected, but it is unclear whether this remains the case over time. This study therefore examined whether infant sleep measured at 6 weeks and 5 months could predict mother-infant gaze synchrony after a social challenge at 5 months (N=84). Infant sleep was measured in terms of sleep bout duration, which normally increases during this period. Gaze was defined in terms of looking at each other's head simultaneously, known as gaze synchrony, or looking elsewhere. Results showed that infant sleep could predict the temporal dynamics of the mother-infant interaction in terms of flexibility of gaze pattern shifts. The larger the increase in sleep bout duration over age, the more flexible the interaction appeared to be. Maternal Age, type of feeding and change of feeding appeared to function as confounding variables in this relation. Infant sleep could not predict percentage of synchrony (central tendency measure) or the average sequence length of gaze patterns (temporal dynamic measure).     

Maternal postnatal psychiatric symptoms and infant temperament affect early mother-infant bonding

Postnatal mother-infant bonding refers to the early emotional bond between mothers and infants. Although some factors, such as maternal mental health, especially postnatal depression, have been considered in relation to mother-infant bonding, few studies have investigated the role of infant temperament traits in early bonding. In this study, the effects of maternal postnatal depressive and anxiety symptoms and infant temperament traits on mother-infant bonding were examined using both mother and father reports of infant temperament. Data for this study came from the first phase of the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study (n = 102, father reports n = 62). After controlling for maternal symptoms of depression and anxiety, mother-reported infant positive emotionality, measured by infant smiling was related to better mother-infant bonding. In contrast, infant negative emotionality, measured by infant distress to limitations was related to lower quality of bonding. In regards to father-report infant temperament, only infant distress to limitations (i.e., frustration/anger) was associated with lower quality of mother-infant bonding. These findings underline the importance of infant temperament as one factor contributing to early parent-infant relationships, and counseling parents in understanding and caring for infants with different temperament traits.     

Temperamental precursors of infant attachment with mothers and fathers

The degree to which parent sensitivity and infant temperament distinguish attachment classification was examined. Multilevel modeling was used to assess the effect of parent sensitivity and infant temperament on infant–mother and infant–father attachment. Data were collected from mothers, fathers, and their infants (N = 135) when the infant was 3-, 5-, 7-, 12-, and 14-months old. Temperament was measured using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised ( Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003); parent sensitivity was coded during the Still Face Paradigm ( Tronick, Als, Adamson, Wise, & Brazelton, 1978); attachment was coded using the Strange Situation ( Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). Results indicate that mothers and fathers were less sensitive with insecure-avoidant infants. Whereas only one difference was found for infant–mother attachment groups and temperament, five significant differences emerged for infant–father attachment groups, with the majority involving insecure-ambivalent attachment. Infants classified as ambivalent with fathers were higher in perceptual sensitivity and cuddliness and these infants also showed a greater increase in low-intensity pleasure over time compared with other infants. Results indicate the importance of both parent sensitivity and infant temperament, though operating in somewhat different ways, in the development of the infant–mother and infant–father attachment relationship.     

Infant temperament and performance on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at 4, 8, and 12 months of age

Infants were assessed with the Rothbart Infant Behavior Questionnaire (an objective measure of infant temperament based on maternal reports) and the complete Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) at 4, 8, and 12 months of age. Activity level was related to BSID performance at each age with babies who obtained higher scores rated as more active. Activity level was also related to the infants' behavior during the test administration at 8 and 12 months. A negative relation was found between smiling and laughter and the mental development index at 8 and 12 months. These data suggest that aspects of infant temperament as assessed by maternal report share a small amount of variance with BSID performance and the amount of shared variance increases with age.     

Infant temperament and maternal sensitivity behavior in the first year of life

Maternal sensitivity behavior (MSB) and infant temperament were investigated among 56 Finnish low-risk mothers and their full-term and healthy infants. The mothers were from families with good economic status, the infant's parents lived together, and the mothers were well educated. Mothers and infants were video-recorded in free-play situations at home, and evaluated using the Parent-Child Early Relational Assessment Scale (PCERA). The infants were also assessed using the Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire (R-ITQ) and the Toddler Temperament Questionnaire (TTQ). Most of the temperament characteristics showed moderate stability during the first year. MSB was related to infant temperament characteristics at 3, 6 and 12 months of age. Gender differences in temperament were evident already at 6 and 12 months of age. Few prior studies have reported gender differences in infancy.     

Convergence of multiple sources of information on infant individuality: neonatal behavior,infant behavior,and temperament reports

To shed light on the notion of enduring individual infant characteristics, convergence of three presumably interrelated measures of infant individuality was examined. Data collected included standardized behavioral assessments of the newborn (NBAS), maternal reports of infant temperament (at 3 and 9 months), and naturalistic observations of infant behavior at 1, 3, and 9 months. Infant temperament reports were significantly stable from 3 to 9 months; observed infant fussiness was significantly stable from 1 to 3 and 3 to 9 months; observed altertness/social responsiveness was not stable over time. Analyses of convergence of neonatal and infant behavior revealed that 9-month infant alertness/social responsiveness was significantly correlated with neonatal habituation. Similar analyses of neonatal behavior and reported temperament revealed that 3-month reported dullness was significantly correlated with neonatal habituation and range of state. At 9 months, temperament ratings of infant fussiness and unpredictability were significantly correlated with autonomic stability; fussiness was also significantly correlated with regulation of state. Finally, no significant relationships were observed between reported temperament and observed infant behavior. These results fail to support a simple notion of enduring individuality in infants over their first year of life.     

Determinants of maternal self-esteem in the neonatal period

The purpose of this study was to determine whether maternal perceptions of infant health and behavior made a unique contribution in understanding maternal self-esteem beyond what could be achieved from objective measures. The Perception of Infant Health (POIH) questionnaire and the Bates ICQ captured the perception of infant health and temperament. Standard medical variables including the Hobel Medical Risk Summary measured the objective aspect of infant health. The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment (NBAS) measured objective infant behavior. The Maternal Self-Report Inventory measured self-esteem. Eighty mother-infant dyads, which included healthy, middle socioeconomic class mothers of both full-term, neurologically normal and preterm infants with a range of medical problems were studied. Negative maternal perceptions of infant health and behavior as well as poorer objective health status were associated with decreased maternal self-esteem. Perceptual variables of temperament and health made a unique contribution to maternal self-esteem scores. Regression analysis indicated fussy/difficult, POIH, and NBAS autonomic scores explained a significant amount of variance in maternal self-esteem.     

The role of infant soothability in the relation between infant negativity and maternal sensitivity

Maternal perceptions of infant soothability moderated the relation between negative infant temperament and maternal sensitivity. Infant negative temperament and maternal sensitivity were significantly positively related when maternal perception of infant soothability was high and significantly negatively related when maternal perception of infant soothability was low.     

Inclusion in a superordinate category, in-group prototypicality, and attitudes towards out-groups

We hypothesized that group members’ attitudes towards an out-group are negatively related to the in-group’s perceived relative prototypicality for a superordinate category, but only if both the in-group and out-group are included in this superordinate category. In Experiment 1 (N=40), Germans’ attitudes towards Poles were negatively correlated with the relative prototypicality of Germans when “Europe” (including Poles), but not when “West-Europe” (excluding Poles), was the superordinate category. In Experiment 2 (N=63), female single parents’ attitudes about the competence of single parents to raise children depended on the in-group’s relative prototypicality for “single parents” (including fathers), but not on their relative similarity to “mothers” (excluding fathers). Both experiments showed that inclusion in a superordinate category had a more negative influence on attitudes towards the out-group when relative in-group prototypicality is high rather than low.     

Robust patterns and individual variations: Stability and predictors of infant behavior in the still-face paradigm

In the present study we examined key issues regarding infant behavior in the still-face paradigm (SFP) in terms of individual variations, stability, and predictors. The sample consisted of 115 mothers and infants, with assessments at ages 3 and 6 months, including observations of maternal and infant behavior in the SFP, and parent reports of infant temperament. Both robust patterns and individual variations in infant SFP behaviors were found, with only a minority of infants showing the expected patterns for negative affect and gaze. Infant behavior patterns showed no stability from age 3 to 6 months, and infant gaze was related to more pronounced behavior changes across the SFP. Maternal sensitivity in the SFP baseline was related to some aspects of infant SFP behavior. Consistent with the differential susceptibility hypothesis, in infants with a more difficult temperament maternal sensitivity predicted a more pronounced expected pattern of changes in infant positive affect across the SFP, whereas this was not the case for infants with a more easy temperament.