A Prevalence Study on Internalizing Problems Among Primary School Children in Hong Kong

Studies in Hong Kong indicated that there is a tendency for young children to use internalizing as a means to cope with their daily difficulties. Mother–child relationship has been seen as a factor affecting a child’s adaptive coping skills. In this study, we explored the prevalence of internalizing problems among primary school children in Hong Kong, as well as the mother–child relationship that contribute to children’s internalizing problems. Data used to assess the internalizing behavior among 1598 primary school children were collected from their mothers. The estimated prevalence of internalizing problem was 11.4%. This prevalence was based on the cutoff point for internalizing disorders according to the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). The CBCL internalizing score was significantly correlated with mother–child relationship as measured using the Parent–Child Relationship Questionnaire (PCRQ). Results from the PCRQ indicated that children’s internalizing problems were positively correlated with mother’s use of verbal punishment and rejection as well as their possessiveness and protection on their children. On the other hand, a nurturing and intimate relationship between mother and child was an important factor contributing to the development of mentally healthy children. Implications of this study and suggestions for further research were discussed.     

The Role of Parental Stress, Mother’s Childhood Abuse and Perceived Consequences of Violence in Predicting Attitudes and Attribution in Favor of Corporal Punishment

We investigate maternal attitudes toward corporal punishment and the attribution of blame to the child on the basis of data gathered from a population survey of a representative sample of mothers and mother figures. A total of 3,148 women living at least half of the time with a child participated in a telephone survey. The independent variables included in the multivariate model predicting maternal attitudes and attributions include the child’s, the mother’s and the family’s characteristics and social support. Results of the multiple regression analysis demonstrate the unique contribution of variables according to the mother’s characteristics (mother’s sensitivity to the consequences of violence, mother’s experience of childhood violence and parental stress related to child’s temperament). These results partially support the importance of prevention programs that would reduce stress and increase the level of parental empathy through the means of parental training.     

Emotion Regulation and Attachment: Unpacking Two Constructs and Their Association

This study examined the association between the security of attachment and processes influencing the development of emotion regulation in young children. A sample of 73 4 1/2-year-olds and their mothers were observed in an emotion regulation probe involving mild frustration for children, and mothers and children were later independently interviewed about how the child had felt. Fewer than half the mothers agreed with children’s self-reports in the emotion they attributed to children (a lower rate than the concordance of observer ratings with children’s self-reports), and higher mother-child concordance was associated with secure attachment and mother’s beliefs about the importance of attending to and accepting their own emotions. Mother-child conversations about recent events evoking children’s negative emotion were also analyzed. Children were less likely to avoid conversing about negative feelings when they were in secure attachments and when mothers were more validating of the child’s perspective. Children’s greater understanding of negative emotions was also significantly associated with higher mother-child concordance and less child conversational avoidance. Taken together, these findings underscore the multiple influences of attachment on emotion regulation and the importance of children’s emotion understanding to these processes.     

Social Determinants of Attitudes towards Women’s Premarital Sexuality among Female Turkish University Students

This paper explores the effects of demographic and attitudinal variables on attitudes toward women’s premarital sexuality in a sample of 277 undergraduate female students at Istanbul University, Turkey. The results of the research demonstrated that sexual attitudes best predicted the dependent variable in regression analysis. Once the variable sexual attitudes was excluded from the equation, mother’s education and personal religiosity were the best predictors of attitudes toward women’s premarital sexuality. For a more extensive version of this study, see     

Maternal Depression,Maternal Expressed Emotion,and Youth Psychopathology

Across development, maternal depression has been found to be a risk factor for youth psychopathology generally and youth depression specifically. Maternal Expressed Emotion (EE) has been examined as a predictor of outcome among youth with depression. The present study explored the associations between youth psychopathology and two predictors–maternal depression within the child’s lifetime and maternal EE–in a study of children at risk for depression. One hundred and seventy-one youth, ages 8–12, and their mothers participated. To assess maternal and youth psychopathology, dyads were administered structured diagnostic assessments, and mothers and children completed self-report measures of their own depressive symptoms. In addition, mothers completed the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist–Parent Report Version (CBCL) for their children. Maternal EE was assessed based on the Five Minute Speech Sample. History of maternal depression was associated with high maternal EE, and the combination of maternal depression history and maternal EE was associated with children’s own reports of higher depressive symptoms. Current maternal depressive symptoms were associated with mothers’ reports of children’s Internalizing scores on the CBCL, and maternal depression history, current maternal depressive symptoms, and maternal EE were strongly associated with mothers’ reports of children’s Externalizing and Total Problem scores on the CBCL. History of maternal depression and a rating of high or borderline Critical EE (characterized by maternal critical comments and/or reports of a negative relationship) were independently associated with children’s depression diagnoses.     

Effects of Parental Soothing Behavior on Stress Levels of 2–8 Year Old Children During Voiding Cystourethrograms by Phase of Procedure

Using the example of a voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG), a painful radiological procedure, this study investigated whether parental soothing behavior (reassuring comments like “it’s almost over” or “You’re O.K.” and soothing by “sh, sh”) in one phase of the procedure influenced the child’s distress in the following phase. The sample was comprised of 68 2–8 year-old children and the accompanying parent(s). Child and parental behavior during the VCUG was coded using a standardized rating scale (CAMPIS-R). Parental reassurance during the anticipatory phase significantly increased the child’s distress of the following phase, while parental “sh, sh” significantly reduced it. Both parental behaviors showed no significant effect on the child’s distress of the following phase when applied during the procedure itself. Results underline the importance of differentiating between anticipatory and procedural phases of the VCUG. Counselling methods for parents on more appropriate strategies to assist their children during procedural phases of the VCUG are necessary.     

What counts in externalizing behaviors? The contributions of emotion and behavior regulation

The aim of this study was to examine the distinct roles of emotion and behavior regulation in externalizing behavior problems of elementary school children. Parents and teachers of 104 seven-year-old children living in Istanbul were given the Emotion Regulation Checklist and the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire. The Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory was used to measure children’s externalizing behaviors. Results revealed that emotion and behavior regulation are modestly related to each other, and in general, both abilities are linked to externalizing behaviors. Low emotion and low behavior regulation significantly predict externalizing behaviors. Interaction between the two regulatory abilities predicts externalizing behaviors. Emotion and behavior regulation appear to be separate dimensions operating together in relation to children’s behavior problems.     

Within-Family Differences in Internalizing Behaviors: The Role of Children’s Perspectives of the Mother-child Relationship

The goal of this exploratory, within-family, longitudinal study was to examine whether children’s perspectives of the mother-child relationship explained within-family differences in children’s responses to a shared family stressor (maternal depressive symptoms) over time. Children (ages 8 to 15 years; N = 68) residing in 34 families were drawn from a general population study in the UK. Predictor variables were assessed at Time 1 and change in internalizing behavior from Time 1 to Time 2 (2 years later) was examined. As children were nested within families, data were analyzed using multilevel modeling, controlling for previous child behavior. Child perspective of the mother-child relationship, in interaction with maternal depressive symptoms, was found to explain within-family differences in internalizing over time. Children with a negative perspective (compared to mothers’ perspectives) were the most vulnerable to the adverse effects of maternal depressive symptoms.     

Predictors of Parenting Stress for Abusive and Nonabusive Mothers

We examined a model of parenting stress for abusive mothers (n = 80) and nonabusive mothers (n = 86) using linear regression analyses. Predictors in the model included (a) the degree to which mothers were bothered by child misbehavior, (b) mothers’ general psychological functioning, and (c) observed child behavior during parent–child interactions. Whether abuse status moderated the relations between each predictor and parenting stress was also explored. Results indicated that mothers’ psychological functioning significantly predicted parenting stress; however, neither mothers’ intolerance for their children’s misbehavior nor observed child behavior were significant predictors of parenting stress in the regression model. A test of moderation revealed a significant interaction between parental intolerance and abuse status such that intolerance predicted parenting stress level only for abusive mothers. A comparison of correlations indicated that abusive mothers’ level of parenting stress was more closely related to their intolerance for child conduct problems than to the child’s behavior during play with their mothers. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for interventions to reduce parenting stress experienced by nonabusive and abusive mothers.     

Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Social Preference During the Early School Years: Mediation by Maternal Warmth and Child Emotion Regulation

This longitudinal study examined processes that mediate the association between maternal depressive symptoms and peer social preference during the early school years. Three hundred and fifty six kindergarten children (182 boys) and their mothers participated in the study. During kindergarten, mothers reported their level of depressive symptomatology. In first grade, teachers rated children’s emotion regulation at school and observers rated the affective quality of mother-child interactions. During second grade, children’s social preference was assessed by peer nomination. Results indicated that mothers’ level of depressive symptomatology negatively predicted their child’s social preference 2 years later, controlling for the family SES and teacher-rated social preference during kindergarten. Among European American families, the association between maternal depressive symptoms and social preference was partially mediated by maternal warmth and the child’s emotion regulation. Although the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and children peer preference was stronger among African American families than Europrean American families, its mediation by the maternal warmth and child’s emotion regulation was not found in African American families.     

MAINTENANCE FACTORS IN COERCIVE MOTHER-CHILD INTERACTIONS: THE COMPLIANCE AND PREDICTABILITY HYPOTHESES

Two stimulus control processes by which some parent-child dyads occasionally escalate their aversive exchanges into progressively more coercive interactions are described. The compliance hypothesis suggests that aversive actions have instructional properties for the dyad and that parent compliance with such child instructions maintains behavior chains of increasing aversiveness. The predictability hypothesis suggests that social interactions are most likely to function as aversive stimuli in the dyad when delivered in unpredictable fashion by either party and that responses instrumental in reducing dyadic unpredictability maintain aversive behavior chains. Expectations derived from both hypotheses are evaluated in a series of correlational analyses of mother-child interactions obtained in extended baseline observations of three dyads seeking psychological help for severe interactional problems. Results provide tentative support for the predictability hypothesis and suggest important avenues of further research.     

Child behavior,maternal depression,and social coercion as factors in the quality of child care

Observational and self-report data were obtained in the homes of 33 mother-child dyads. These volunteer, normal subjects were monitored with respect to their affectionate and aversive interactions, and the mothers were asked to provide three categories of self-report data. Mothers made observational judgments of their children, their own feelings of depression, and the valences of their interactions with adults. Multiple regression analyses were then employed to predict the mothers' child care behaviors, which were composed of observed mother responses and mother observational judgments. In addition, conditional probability analyses were conducted to examine the directionality of correlations between observed mother-child interchanges. Results showed child behavior to be the best single predictor of how the mothers responded to their children, followed by maternal depression and mother coercive interactions with adults. Child behavior was shown to be a significant antecedent cue for the maternal responses. However, the findings also showed that mother observational judgments about their children had little to do with how the children behaved. Rather, the maternal judgments were best predicted by mother depression, mother coercive interchanges with adults, and the mothers' observed aversive responses to their children. Results were interpreted within a systems framework in which maternal care is viewed as a response that is triangulated by adult-and child-produced stimuli.     

Parental Influence on Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: I. Relationships Between Parent Behaviors and Child Peer Status

We examined associations between children’s peer relationships and (a) their parents’ social competence as well as (b) their parents’ behaviors during the children’s peer interactions. Participants were families of 124 children ages 6–10 (68% male), 62 with ADHD and 62 age- and sex-matched comparison youth. Children’s peer relationships were assessed via parent and teacher report, and sociometric nominations in a lab-based playgroup. Parental characteristics were assessed via parent self-report and observations of behavior during their child’s playgroup. After statistical control of relevant covariates, parents of children with ADHD reported poorer social skills of their own, arranged fewer playdates for their children, and displayed more criticism during their child’s peer interaction than did parents of comparison youth. Parents’ socialization with other parents and facilitation of the child’s peer interactions predicted their children having good peer relationships as reported by teachers and peers, whereas parental corrective feedback to the child and praise predicted poor peer relationships. Parents’ ratings of their child’s social skills were positively associated with ratings of their own social skills, but negatively associated with criticism and facilitation of the child’s peer interactions. Relationships between parental behaviors and peer relationships were stronger for youth with ADHD than for comparison youth. The relevance of findings to interventions is discussed.     

Childhood correlates of adult levels of incongruence between implicit and explicit motives

The present study used archival longitudinal data from 5 years old children and their mothers to explore mother and child characteristics associated with motive incongruence 26 years later. Motive incongruence was assessed in terms of discrepancies between implicit and explicit measures of the need for achievement, power and affiliation. Previous research has suggested that trait self-determination, which involves self-awareness and perceived volition in one’s actions, moderates the level of implicit/explicit motive incongruence. We hypothesized that early childhood experiences that interfere with the development of self-determination would be associated with later motive incongruence. Our results showed that childhood factors that reflected mother–child difficulties in the areas of autonomy and relatedness were significantly related to adult levels of motive incongruence. Specifically, adult motive incongruence was significantly associated with strong maternal inhibition of the child’s dependent and sexual impulses, maternal separation during the child’s second year, and mother reports of feeling dominated by the child. Limitations of the data are discussed.     

Children's Personal Narratives and Their Mothers' Responsiveness as Covariates of the Children's Compliance

Twenty-six mother–child dyads volunteered to be observed interacting at home, and the children agreed to participate in interviews designed to elicit their personal narratives. Observers coded the children's compliance with mother instructions and the mothers' responsiveness to their children's prosocial behaviors. Other raters coded the children's narratives for coherence of story structure. Correlational analyses of the data sets confirmed hypotheses that mother responsiveness and child coherence scores would account for separate variance in the children's willingness to comply with their mothers' instructions. These results were interpreted within the literature on child–mother synchrony and functional aspects of children's personal narratives.     

Do Father-Friendly Policies Promote Father-Friendly Child-Rearing Practices? A Review of Swedish Parental Leave and Child Health Centers

By reviewing the literature, we looked at how parental leave policies in Sweden have influenced two well-defined areas of early father involvement: participating in parental leave and at visits/activities at the Child Health Centers. Sweden has one of the most comprehensive and egalitarian parental leave policies in the world, permitting parents to take 480 days off of work, receive 80% of their pay for the first 15 months, and divide their leave however they see fit, barring that both parents receive 2 months of parental leave that is exclusive to them. Additionally, fathers are permitted to take the first ten working days off to be at home with his family. Most parents, especially mothers, use parental leave throughout their infant’s first year. During the parents’ time off from work, nearly all Swedish parents (95–99%) utilize the Child Health Centers between 11 and 13 times during the infant’s first year of life. The Child Health Centers help to monitor a child’s growth and development, provide parenting support, immunizations, health education, health screenings, and provide referral sources if the child has any special needs. However, fathers only use 22% of all parental leave days. Studies have pointed out that fathers may not use parental leave because of corporate, maternal, and financial attitudes. Despite the Child Health Centers’ policy of including both parents, fathers do not utilize the Child Health Centers to the same extent as mothers. Research has shown that fathers may not use Child Health Centers as they are mainly only open during normal working hours, they are dominated by females (staff and mothers), and many conversations during the child’s first year are directed towards mothers. Barriers for why father involvement is lower than mothers are discussed.     

Development and use of behavior and social interaction software installed on Palm handheld for observation of a child’s social interactions with the environment

In settings in developing countries, children often socialize with multiple socializing agents (peers, siblings, neighbors) apart from their parents, and thus, a measurement of a child’s social interactions should be expanded beyond parental interactions. Since the environment plays a role in shaping a child’s development, the measurement of child-socializing agents’ interactions is important. We developed and used a computerized observational softwareBehavior and Social Interaction Software (BASIS) with a preloaded coding scheme installed on a handheld Palm device to record complex observations of interactions between children and socializing agents. Using BASIS, social interaction assessments were conducted on 573 preschool children for 1 h in their natural settings. Multiple screens with a set of choices in each screen were designed that included the child’s location, broad activity, state, and interactions with child-socializing agents. Data were downloaded onto a computer and systematically analyzed. BASIS, installed on Palm OS (M-125), enabled the recording of the complex interactions of child-socializing agents that could not be recorded with manual forms. Thus, this tool provides an innovative and relatively accurate method for the systematic recording of social interactions in an unrestricted environment.     

祖辈共同养育模式下幼儿母子依恋对问题行为的影响：祖孙依恋的中介作用

采用幼儿依恋量表和儿童行为量表（Child Behavior Checklist, CBCL）测量265名祖辈共同养育幼儿的母子依恋、祖孙依恋和问题行为的情况,考察祖辈共同养育幼儿的祖孙依恋在母子依恋与问题行为的中介作用。结果发现：（1）祖辈共同养育幼儿的母子依恋与祖孙依恋呈显著正相关,幼儿的母子依恋与内化问题行为、外化问题行为呈显著负相关,幼儿的祖孙依恋与内化问题行为、外化问题行为呈显著负相关;（2）祖辈共同养育幼儿的祖孙依恋完全中介母子依恋对内化问题行为、外化问题行为的影响。     

The Impact of Managing School-aged Children’s Diabetes: The Role of Child Behavior Problems and Parental Discipline Strategies

Models of diabetes management in children emphasize family relationships, particularly parent–child interactions. In adolescents, parental involvement in disease-specific management relates to better health and adherence. However, information about parental involvement in disease management for young children is limited and mixed. This study investigated behavior problems of school-aged children with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) in association with parent discipline strategies and parents’ perceptions of (1) time spent managing diabetes and (2) the impact their child’s diabetes has on their discipline strategies. Parents of children ages 5–12 with T1DM completed standardized measures of child misbehavior, parent discipline strategies, and responded to questions regarding perceived time spent managing diabetes, and perceived impact of diabetes on ability to discipline. Results showed child mealtime misbehavior was common and associated with overreactive parental discipline. Further, overreactive discipline was also associated with reports of less time spent managing child’s illness. Child misbehavior was positively associated with parents’ perceived amount of time spent managing diabetes and with the impact of child diabetes on discipline. Findings suggest the importance of considering parent discipline strategies and child misbehavior when working with young children with diabetes.     

Impact of a Genetic Diagnosis of a Mitochondrial Disorder 5–17 Years After the Death of an Affected Child

This study used in-depth interviews to explore the experiences of parents who were re-contacted with new genetic results many years after the death of a child with a mitochondrial disorder. At the time of their child’s illness, parents had consented to a tissue sample being taken to help with diagnosis of a suspected mitochondrial disorder, and subsequently further DNA testing identified the genetic cause. Parents did not express negative feelings about being re-contacted with new information, and hoped that continuing research might help other families. Positive aspects included relief from feelings of guilt over the cause of the child’s disorder, and having accurate genetic information available for surviving children. Difficult emotional and psychosocial implications included contradictions to previous beliefs about inheritance, deciding how and when to communicate information to surviving children, and coping with new fears for the mother’s health if a gene located in the mitochondrial DNA was identified. In half of the families the new results significantly altered the parents’ understanding of the inheritance pattern. This study highlights the impact of new genetic information offered after a delay of several years, which has the potential to re-open feelings of grief and uncertainty and can present a new inheritance scenario for which research participants or their families are unprepared. Health professionals involved in conveying genetic research results can help to support families through this process.