Empathy,social skills,and other relevant cognitive processes in rapists and child molesters

Considerable theoretical and research efforts have gone into formulations which suggest that sex offenders differ from nonoffenders in their processing of sexual material. This article reviews the literature concerning patterns of empathy, social skills, and other cognitive processes (i.e., theories, attitudes, and distorted cognitions) of incarcerated sex offenders or those who have identified themselves as sex offenders. We choose these three general topic areas because many see these phenomena as central to the understanding of sex offending. First, we present general empirical findings relevant to the phenomena of empathy, social skills, and distorted cognitions. We then move to a discussion of specific cognitive models that have been offered to account for the data. We briefly discuss the available data relevant to these cognitive models. The next section of the article reviews the treatments that have been applied to sex offenders with the stated goal of modifying the processes we are examining. Our final section attempts to summarize and highlight some of the identified problems and weaknesses in the study of the aforementioned processes in sex offending. We argue that too little attention has been paid to basic cognitive psychology and the role that cognitions or conceptualizations can play in promoting our understanding of the sex offender. We suggest that following the information processing approach as a generalized model will help integrate and direct research efforts.     

Study of empathy in a Spanish sex offender sample

International research has emphasised that empathy is a relevant factor of sex offending. The main goal of this study is to explore, in a Spanish sex offender sample, the relationship between empathy deficits and sex crime for various types of victims. This study also analyses the positive effect that psychological treatment could have on empathy. For this purpose, 118 non-sex offenders were compared on an adapted version of Rape Empathy Measure to 39 treated rapists and 34 untreated rapists. Results show that the untreated rapists have lower empathy levels than non-sex offenders. Nevertheless, the treated rapists scored higher on empathy than the other two groups assessed, untreated rapists and non-sex offenders. Lastly, some suggestions are provided for future research in terms of the assessment of empathy and other factors related to sexual aggression.     

Relationships between conflict,affect and deviant sexual behaviors in rapists and pedophiles

The aim of the current study was to determine the relationship in sexual offenders between conflict, affective states and particular sexual behaviors (fantasies and masturbatory activities while having such fantasies). To this end we developed the “Fantasy Report”, a self-assessment method for recording affective components and sexual behaviors. Thirteen rapists and 9 pedophiles filled out the Fantasy Report every 2 days for a period of 60 days. In rapists, negative mood and the presence of conflicts coincided with both overwhelming deviant sexual fantasies and increased masturbatory activities while having such fantasies. Furthermore, the emotions most frequently reported by rapists following conflicts were loneliness, humiliation, anger and feelings of inadequacy and rejection. Affective components, however, were not associated with nondeviant sexual behaviors. For the pedophiles, the data revealed a significant relationship only between negative moods and deviant sexual fantasies. These data are interpreted to mean that, in sexual offenders, negative affect is a crucial component in the chain that leads to deviant sexual behaviors.     

Psychological and sexual functioning among outpatient sexual offenders against children: A Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) cluster analytic study

Multivariate clustering procedures were used to identify homogeneous subgroups of outpatient sex offenders against children (n=110)on the basis of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Results indicated a five-subgroup solution. Two within-normal-limits and two clinically elevated profile subgroups replicated subtypes found in previous cluster analytic studies of child sex offenders. The fifth subgroup appeared similar in MMPI profile pattern and elevation to a previously identified subtype of rapists. Discriminant analyses showed that subgroups differed along dimensions of cognitive disturbance and sexual functioning. Furthermore, levels of psychopathology corresponded with levels of sexual pathology. Results are discussed with reference to previous MMPI cluster analytic studies of sex offenders and theories of sexual aggression.Portions of this paper were presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, 1992, Chicago, Illinois.     

Empathic deficits in sexual offenders: An integration of affective,social, and cognitive constructs

A number of researchers have suggested that lack of empathy is a critical feature in the assessment and treatment of sex offenders. However, difficulties with definitions of empathy and corresponding measures of that construct have led to limited and disparate empirical findings supporting this claim. Such findings may be due to a definition of empathy that fails to incorporate other key factors related to sexual offending. Factors such as inaccurate social perceptions, cognitive distortions, deficits in interpersonal intimacy, maladaptive emotional regulation abilities, and other socio-cognitive deficiencies thought to contribute to sexually assaultive behavior also share a number of core developmental features with affect and emotional responding. As socio-cognitive abilities tend to develop simultaneously at times as humans mature, it is suspected that social, cognitive, and affective skills impact one another's development and ultimately dictate the expression of empathy in adulthood. Accordingly, deficits in social skills, interpersonal intimacy, and cognitive processes necessary to emotional stability and appropriate social interaction may be critical to the development and expression of empathic deficits and subsequent efforts to treat or reduce such deficits in sexual offenders. This paper will review and integrate literature examining the relationship of various socio-cognitive factors to empathic deficits in sexual offenders.     

Treatment readiness in violent offenders: The influence of cognitive factors on engagement in violence programs

Advances in offender rehabilitation theory have led to the development of a clear framework of the factors that need consideration for an offender to be ready for therapy and thus gain maximum benefits. Here, we examine in greater detail the role of cognition in readiness for rehabilitation in violent offenders. We assess how cognitive processes and distortions common in violent offenders may affect and hamper rehabilitation readiness. Methods for remediation of cognitive factors that diminish readiness, including motivational interviewing, are discussed. We conclude that cognitive factors are critical in the assessment of readiness in violent offenders and therapeutic efforts to enhance engagement.     

Sexual offenders' cognitive distortions as implicit theories

In this article, I argue that sexual offenders' cognitive distortions emerge from underlying causal theories about the nature of their victims. These implicit theories function like scientific theories and are used to explain empirical regularities (e.g., other people's actions) and to make predictions about the world. They are relatively coherent and constituted by a number of interlocking ideas and their component concepts and categories. Following a review of research from other areas in psychology on implicit theories, I consider the implications of this perspective for understanding cognitive distortions in sexual offenders. Finally, I discuss the research and clinical implications of viewing cognitive distortions in offenders as implicit theories.     

Parental identification of rapists and pedophiles.

It is well documented that sex offenders experience a higher incidence of sexual abuse and are more likely to have been reared in dysfunctional families than are individuals in most comparison groups. It is unclear, however, whether growing up in an abusive or dysfunctional family affects the extent to which the potential sex offender would subsequently identify with his parents. Sixteen rapists, 18 pedophiles, 9 general offenders, and 11 college students completed the Parental Identification Scale to assess their parental identification. It was predicted that the rapists and pedophiles would identify less with their parents than would college students or general offenders. Analysis indicated a strong and significant correlation between group membership and parental identification. Rapists and pedophiles identified less with their mothers and fathers than did members of corresponding control groups.     

The role of offender profiling in classifying rapists: Implications for counselling

The offender profiling process is an investigative technique used to identify the major personality and behavioural characteristics of the offender based upon an analysis of the crime(s) he or she has committed (Douglas & Burgess, 1986). Attempts have been made in both England and America to classify rapists into various subgroups. Instead of definitive groups of offenders a suggestion is made as to the formation of a dimensional typology of rapists. This would allow for the difficulties in defining boundaries for subgroups and accounting for individual differences and heterogeneity of both the rapist and the assault. The various criteria that attempt to distinguish the different types of offender are discussed including behavioural and motivational characteristics of the offender, lay theories of rape and the victim-offender relationship. The implications of the dimensional typology are outlined. There are indications that some factors may contribute to a longer and more complicated recovery process. Macnab (1993) neatly outlines eleven contributory factors: financial stress, various long term stresses, the degree of violence, the use of weapons, the sense of violation, the threat of death, multiple assailants, threats of greater or continuing harm and a later death, medical complications, problems with police, medical and criminal systems and lack of adequate professional and informed support. As well as this, the important issue of self-blame is discussed along with the subsequent problem of post-traumatic stress disorder: the recurring distressing memories, dreams and events and signals that can provoke a further cycle of distress.     

Assessment and treatment of obsessional harassment

Obsessional harassment and stalking have become increasingly recognized as significant social problems, often with dramatic negative repercussions on the lives of victims. As the public awareness of this problematic behavior has grown, the amount of clinical attention and empirical research focused on understanding the perpetrators of harassment has increased accordingly. Nevertheless, relatively little research has addressed the numerous issues involved in the assessment and treatment of obsessional harassment offenders. This article reviews the existing research on obsessional harassment/stalking, and offers a diagnostic typology of these offenders based on the nature of the relationship with the victim and the motivation of the offender. Treatment modalities are then discussed with regard to each of the primary diagnoses that occur among obsessional harassment offenders. Finally, strategies for initiating treatment for unmotivated or unwilling offenders are discussed, along with clinical issues that arise in the evaluation and treatment process.     

From Crime Scene Actions in Stranger Rape to Prediction of Rapist Type: Single‐Victim or Serial Rapist?

The differences in crime scene actions in cases of stranger rape committed by convicted offenders were examined between 31 single‐victim rapists and 35 serial rapists. Data were collected from police files, court verdicts, psychiatric evaluations, and criminal records. Findings indicate that the serial rapists were more criminally sophisticated than the single‐victim rapists, during their first and second rapes. The single‐victim rapists were significantly more likely to engage in the interpersonal involvement behavior of kissing the victim, and to engage in pre‐assault alcohol use, than the serial rapists. There was, however, no significant difference in physically violent or sexual behaviors. To investigate the possibility of predicting rapist type, logistic regression analyses were performed. Results indicate that three behaviors in conjunction, kissed victim, controlled victim, and offender drank alcohol before the offense, predicted whether an unknown offender is a single‐victim or serial rapist with a classification accuracy of 80.4%. The findings have implications for the classification of stranger rapists in offender profiling. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Phallometric assessment of rapists: A critical review of the research

There is disagreement in the literature as to utility of phallometry with rapists. The present article attempts to shed light on the basis for these contradictory conclusions. First, the theoretical rationale for assessing sexual interest via phallometry is discussed. Second, all the recent (i.e., since 1994) studies that have used phallometric assessment to measure sexual arousal in convicted rapists or self-identified sexual aggressors are individually reviewed and critiqued. Following critiques of individual studies, strengths and weaknesses of the literature are listed and overall conclusions are drawn. Lastly, needed improvements and directions for future research as to sexual preferences of rapists are discussed.     

Understanding cognitive,affective, and intimacy deficits in sexual offenders: A developmental perspective

Factors, such as intimacy deficits, problems empathizing with victims, and cognitive distortions, have all been associated with the genesis of sexual abuse. Importantly, they all point to a lack of awareness of other peoples' beliefs, desires, perspectives, and needs. We argue that sexual offenders' problems in these domains can be viewed as partially arising from deficits in one central mechanism: the ability to infer mental states. Following a review of the above three areas, we discuss the developmental literature on children's theory of mind and develop a model informed by this work. We apply this model to sexual offenders and discuss its research and clinical implications.     

Factorial Analysis of the Relation of the Press to Voting in Chicago

Abstract

Clinical literature has had speculations concerning the attitudes of rapists toward women, but only a few studies have tested attitudinal hypotheses with psychometric instruments. The present investigation used the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) to study and compare the attitudes of 20 incarcerated rapists, 20 nonsex-related violent offenders, and 20 matched subjects in a contemporary control group. The results confirmed the general hypothesis that the rapist group would show different and more conservative attitudes toward women, especially in areas relating to sexual behavior. More specific analysis of subscale differences was used to further compare the groups on precise attitudinal variables. The findings were discussed in terms of the possible relationship between rape behavior and stereotypic conservative attitudes toward women.     

Doing cognitive neuroscience: a third way

The “top-down” and “bottom-up” approaches have been thought to exhaust the possibilities for doing cognitive neuroscience. We argue that neither approach is likely to succeed in providing a theory that enables us to understand how cognition is achieved in biological creatures like ourselves. We consider a promising third way of doing cognitive neuroscience, what might be called the “neural dynamic systems” approach, that construes cognitive neuroscience as an autonomous explanatory endeavor, aiming to characterize in its own terms the states and processes responsible for brain-based cognition. We sketch the basic motivation for the approach, describe a particular version of the approach, so-called ‘Dynamic Causal Modeling’ (DCM), and consider a concrete example of DCM. This third way, we argue, has the potential to avoid the problems that afflict the other two approaches.     

从数量表征到数表征：具身认知视角下的人类数能力获得

数能力是数学认知的基本成分。与动物所具有的基本数能力不同,人类不仅具备数量表征能力,更重要的是还拥有对数概念进行表征的数表征能力。虽然具身认知与离身认知都对数概念的表征问题进行了解释,但二者却存在明显理论分歧。具身认知观点主要从具身数量表征和数能力发展的具身认知机制两方面为人类独特数能力的获得提供了理论支撑及实证证据。这启示人们需要重视具身学习在数能力形成实践中的关键作用,重视具身数量表征在数学教学中的作用,仍需进一步揭示其内在的心理和神经基础。     

Community-based co-occurring disorder (COD) intermediate and advanced treatment for offenders

Against a backdrop of increasing concern about the adequacy of treatment for co-occurring substance use and mental disorders (typically known as "co-occurring disorders," or COD) in the criminal justice system, this article attempts to provide empirical evidence for a typology of levels of COD treatment for offenders in both prison and community settings. The paper investigates two levels of treatment programs for COD; "intermediate" programs, in which treatment programming has been designed primarily for offenders with a single disorder, and "advanced" programs, in which programming has been designed to provide integrated substance abuse treatment and mental health services. Findings from a national survey of program directors indicated that both intermediate and advanced COD treatment programs were similar in their general approach to substance abuse treatment, but differed considerably in their treatment of mental disorders, where the advanced programs employed significantly more evidence- and consensus-based practices. Results provide support for the distinction between intermediate- and advanced-level services for offenders with COD and support a typology that defines advanced programs as integrating a range of evidence- and consensus-based practices so as to modify treatment sufficiently to address both diseases.     

Understanding online child pornography use: Applying sexual offense theory to internet offenders

This review outlines the links between contemporary etiological and offense-process theories of child sexual abuse and our current knowledge of individuals who commit offenses related to online child pornography. First, we integrate previous behavioral typologies into a four-category internet offender typology. Second, we summarize development of etiological theory and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of these theories in explaining the child pornography offender. Third, we outline the potential situational and ecological factors relating to the online environment that may also be a cause for the development and maintenance of prurient online behavior. Fourth, we review theories of the offense process and apply these to research into the modus operandi of child pornography offenders. Finally, we examine the usefulness of this approach in the assessment of risk and the treatment of online offenders.     

Ten years of the rational analysis of cognition

Rational analysis is an empirical program that attempts to explain the function and purpose of cognitive processes. This article looks back on a decade of research outlining the rational analysis methodology and how the approach relates to other work in cognitive science. We illustrate rational analysis by considering how it has been applied to memory and reasoning. From the perspective of traditional cognitive science, the cognitive system can appear to be a rather arbitrary assortment of mechanisms with equally arbitrary limitations. In contrast, rational analysis views cognition as intricately adapted to its environment and to the problems it faces.