Effects of Self-Monitoring on On-Task Behaviors of At-Risk Middle School Students

The purposes of this study were to evaluate the effects of self-monitoring on increasing the on-task behaviors of four at-risk middle school students, and to examine its indirect effects on academic performance. Additionally, we attempted to develop and validate cost- and time-efficient procedures that typical classroom teachers could use. The data from a multiple baseline design across three academic settings, replicated with four students, revealed immediate increases in on-task behavior as each student began to self-monitor in each sequential setting. The data also revealed slightly higher levels of academic performance and, in most instances, gradually accelerating trends. These findings suggest that self-monitoring is a cost- and time-efficient procedure that classroom teachers can use to teach at-risk students to manage their own behaviors.     

A Single-Subject Study of a Technology-Based Self-Monitoring Intervention

Students with ADHD often struggle with self-regulation skills. One strategy demonstrating considerable success in helping these students regulate their behavior is self-monitoring. Although there is an abundance of research on self-monitoring, research on the use of technology for self-monitoring is only beginning to emerge. The primary goal of this single-subject study was to examine the effects of an iPad application (SCORE IT) for self-monitoring on the behavior of three fifth-grade students with or at risk for ADHD who were exhibiting low rates of academic engagement in a general education environment. A secondary goal was to gain an in-depth understanding of the teacher’s perceptions of the feasibility and value of the intervention. Overall, the SCORE IT intervention resulted in substantial improvements in academic engagement, and teacher perceptions of the feasibility and worth of the intervention were reported as highly favorable. Limitations and future directions for research are discussed.     

Academic Processing Speed Mediates the Influence of Both Externalizing Behavior and Language Skills on the Academic Skills of Students with Emotional Disturbance

The results from previous research suggest that there is a relatively small (albeit statistically significant) relationship between the externalizing behavior and academic skills of students with emotional disturbance (ED). Researchers have also found that the majority of these students have language deficits that hinder their academic performance. The purposes of this study were to investigate the mediating role of academic processing speed (i.e., academic fluency) on the relationship between: (a) The externalizing behavior and academic skills of K-12 students with ED; and (b) language skills and academic skills of students with ED. Results indicate that academic processing speed mediated the influence of both language skills and externalizing behavior on academic skills of this population. The findings, limitations, and implications were discussed.     

Effects of Self-Monitoring on the On-Task Behavior and Written Language Performance of Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities

The present study was conducted to determine the effects of self-monitoring and a changing criterion with public posting phase on student on-task behavior and written language performance. Four elementary school boys participated and were enrolled in an urban-based, elementary-level resource room for students with learning disabilities. Self-monitoring procedures for on-task behavior included the students listening to a tone recorded at 60-s intervals and responding to the question, “Am I on-task?” Written language performance involved the students writing for a 10-min. session and counting and graphing the number of words written. During baseline conditions, student on-task behavior and written language performance were collected. During the self-monitoring conditions, the students monitored their on-task behavior and written language performance simultaneously. In the changing criterion with public posting condition, the students received their goal for the day's session prior to writing, wrote, and recorded whether they met their goal. While the results show a functional relationship between self-monitoring and on-task behavior, the data for the relationship between self-monitoring and written language performance were less compelling. A greater increase occurred when the changing criterion with public posting condition was introduced. Results suggest that self-monitoring changed on-task behavior; however, further research needs to be conducted to determine the conditions that would produce comparable effects for written language performance. Several implications for students and teachers and parent training were discussed.     

The Effects of Self-Monitoring on Children's Classroom Behavior

A multiple baseline design across three third-grade boys was used to determine the effectiveness of self-monitoring as an intervention tool in the classroom setting. The differential effectiveness of self-monitoring the correctness of answers to arithmetic problems and of self-monitoring on-task behavior was determined by an alternating-treatments design for each boy. Self-monitoring academic accuracy or on-task behavior produced comparable effects. Self-monitoring increased on-task behavior for all three subjects. Self-monitoring increased the rate of completion of arithmetic problems for two of the three subjects. Self-monitoring did not affect academic accuracy in a consistent manner. These results are discussed in light of the instruction and motivational aspects of self-monitoring.     

Training children's self-control: A field experiment in self-monitoring and goal-setting in the classroom

A field experiment investigated the effects of training in self-monitoring and goal-setting skills on classroom study behavior and academic achievement among elementary school students in an individualized mathematics program. In the Self-Monitoring Conditions, students were shown a simple system for observing and maintaining daily records of their own study behavior during their math classes; orthogonally, in the Goal-Setting Conditions, students were shown a simple method of setting and recording daily performance goals during their math classes. Exposure to self-monitoring procedures produced significant increases in both appropriate study behavior and in actual achievement in the mathematics program, while exposure to goal-setting procedures had no effect on either study behavior or academic achievement. Nor, contrary to expectation, did exposure to the goal-setting instructions enhance the effectiveness of the self-monitoring system. The implications of these results in terms of implicit and explicit models of self-reinforcement processes were discussed.     

Status and the Motivational Foundations of Self-Monitoring

Based on their quantitative review of the self-monitoring literature, Gangestad and Snyder (2000, Psychological Bulletin, 126, 530–555) proposed that the self-presentational behavior of high self-monitors is designed to cultivate status within perceived hierarchical social structures. They suggest that high self-monitors may be more concerned with addressing status within unequal-status relationships, whereas low self-monitors may be more concerned with establishing equal-status relationships based on trust and genuineness. In this article, we address these proposed motivations by examining relevant self-monitoring literature that pertains to desire for status, perceptions of and responsivity to status, and the cultivation of status. In addition to discussing the implications of status for high self-monitors, we also consider the proposed desires of low self-monitors for equality and sincerity.     

DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF SELF-MONITORING ATTENTION,ACCURACY, AND PRODUCTIVITY

Effects of self-monitoring on-task behavior, academic productivity, and academic accuracy were assessed with 6 elementary-school students with learning disabilities in their general education classroom using a mathematics task. Following baseline, the three self-monitoring conditions were introduced using a multiple schedule design during independent practice sessions. Although all three interventions yielded improvements in either arithmetic productivity, accuracy, or on-task behavior, self-monitoring academic productivity or accuracy was generally superior. Differential results were obtained across age groups: fourth graders' mathematics performance improved most when self-monitoring productivity, whereas sixth graders' performance improved most when self-monitoring accuracy.     

Helping: The Influence of Anticipated Social Sanctions and Self-Monitoring

ABSTRACT A field experiment was conducted to examine the influence of social sanctions and self-monitoring on willingness to help handicapped persons Compared to low self-monitoring individuals, those high in self-monitoring tendencies were more likely to offer help if told that significant social rewards were attached to the act of helping, but were less likely to help if led to believe that these consequences were weak Implications for research on helping and self-monitoring are considered with particular attention being given to the relationship between social sanctions and self-monitoring     

A Multilevel Meta-analysis on Academic Achievement Among Maltreated Youth

Maltreatment can influence normative development and negatively impact emotional, behavioral, and social functioning in youth. As a result, it is not surprising that maltreated youth, as compared to non-maltreated youth, tend to underperform academically. Research on the academic performance of maltreated youth has increased over the last decade and several review papers have been published in this area. While the conclusions of these review articles have been that maltreated youth are at greater risk for academic deficits as compared to their non-maltreated peers, there are several conflicting findings within the literature that make it difficult to determine if or to what extent maltreated youth may demonstrate academic difficulty. Using a multilevel, structural equation model meta-analysis technique, the current study sought to provide a quantitative synthesis of the literature by examining the mean difference between maltreated and non-maltreated youth on measures of academic performance. Moreover, the current study also examined group differences between academic subject and maltreatment type. A total of 72 effect sizes were extracted from 32 studies that met inclusion criteria. Results demonstrated an overall negative, medium effect size, such that maltreated youth tended to perform slightly greater than half a standard deviation below non-maltreated youth on measures of academic performance. Moderation analyses suggest deficits may be greater on measures of general academic performance, as compared to language arts measures. No differences were observed for maltreatment type. These findings highlight the need for increased focus on academic difficulties among maltreated youth.     

Self-Monitoring and Performance in Nontraditional Occupations

Previous studies have found that self-monitoring can enhance the job performance of women in traditional male occupations (computer sales, management). The present study tested for this same enhancement effect among men in the traditional female job of staff nurse. Correlations between nurses' scores on the revised Self-Monitoring Test and hospital performance evaluations indicated that the self-monitoring factor of Sensitivity to Expressive Behavior of Others was highly correlated with male nurses' job success but was uncorrelated with female staff nurses' job success. This same self-monitoring factor was also correlated with the job success of female nursing administrators, a job that is "nontraditional" for women in the sense that masculine occupation expectations are generally associated with leadership and management behaviors. It was concluded that self-monitoring ability can facilitate adaptation to nontraditional occupations for both men and women probably because the social skills associated with high self-monitoring can enhance perceptions of occupation legitimacy.     

Differential effects of cognitive behavior modification on seriously emotionally disturbed adolescents exhibiting internalizing or externalizing problems

This study examined the differential effects of a school-based cognitive behavior modification intervention on (a) the interpersonal/social skills and (b) the social competence and school adjustment of two groups of middle school students identified as seriously emotionally disturbed. One groups of students exhibited internalizing emotional problems and the other group exhibited externalizing emotional problems. The objective of the study was to investigate whether the effectiveness of a school-based cognitive behavior modification intervention was significantly related to the type of emotional disturbance a student exhibits (i.e. internalizing or externalizing emotional disturbance). The sample consisted of an experimental and a control group of middle school students identified as seriously emotionally disturbed. The intervention was implemented in 23 biweekly 42-minute sessions. The results indicated that teacher ratings of student social competence and school adjustment were sensitive to treatment effects, although students' social skills self-ratings were not significantly affected by the treatment. A differential treatment effect was established in that externalizing students were significantly more responsive than internalizing students.     

Social functioning and emotional regulation in the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder subtypes

Compared 16 children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) combined type (ADHD-C), 14 children with ADHD predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I), and 17 controls on parent and teacher ratings of social status and performance, self-report of social knowledge and performance, and observations of behavior on an emotional regulation task. Analyses revealed distinct patterns of social dysfunction between ADHD subgroups. Children with ADHD-C were rated as showing more aggressive behavior; furthermore, they displayed emotional dysregulation characterized by high intensity and high levels of both positive and negative behavior. In contrast, children with ADHD-I were perceived as displaying social passivity and showed deficits in social knowledge on the self-report measure but did not evidence problems in emotional regulation. Regression analyses revealed that social performance, emotional regulation, and, to a lesser degree, social knowledge, were predictive of social status. The application of these findings to understanding the nature of the social deficits in the ADHD subtypes and directions for future research are discussed.     

Targeting Performance Dimensions in Sequence According to the Instructional Hierarchy: Effects on Children’s Math Work Within a Self-Monitoring Program

Four fifth-grade students were presented with frustration-level math probes while three performance dimensions were measured (i.e., percent intervals on-task, percent correct digits, and digits correct per minute (DCM)). Using a multiple baseline design across participants, students were trained to self-monitor time on-task, accuracy, and productivity in sequence and were given their choice of preferred rewards for increases in each performance dimension. The effects of self-monitoring productivity plus rewards prior to and after reaching on-task and accuracy criteria were also evaluated on a probe basis using an embedded multielement design. Results showed that three of the four students increased DCM when self-monitoring productivity plus rewards, but only after meeting on-task and accuracy criteria. Effects of self monitoring accuracy were mixed, and all students showed high levels of on-task behavior throughout the study. The implications of these results for increasing the effectiveness of self-monitoring through a sequenced approach to academic skill training are discussed.     

A Comparison of Video Feedback and In Vivo Self-Monitoring on the Social Interactions of an Adolescent with Asperger Syndrome

Difficulties with social interactions and restrictive and repetitive interest patterns or behaviors are common among individuals with Asperger syndrome. These difficulties often pose barriers to establishing and maintaining social relationships. In the current study, 2 different interventions were compared that focused on improving the social interactions of a 14-year-old adolescent with Asperger syndrome. A reversal design was used to compare the effectiveness of video feedback and in vivo self-monitoring on inappropriate and appropriate social interactions during activities with a teacher. The procedures were replicated during activities with peers, and generalization was assessed during activities with the adolescent’s mother. Although video feedback resulted in slight reductions in inappropriate behavior, larger reductions occurred during in vivo self-monitoring. Treatment acceptability data indicated high participant satisfaction with both interventions; however, the in vivo self-monitoring was rated as slightly preferred.     

PEER TUTORING FOR CHILDREN WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER: EFFECTS ON CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

We investigated the effects of classwide peer tutoring (CWPT) on the classroom behavior and academic performance of students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Typical instructional activities were contrasted with CWPT for 18 children with ADHD and 10 peer comparison students attending first- through fifth-grade general education classes. CWPT led to increases in active engagement in academic tasks along with reductions in off-task behavior for most participants. Of students with ADHD, 50% exhibited improvements in academic performance in math or spelling during CWPT conditions, as measured by a treatment success index. Participating teachers and students reported a high level of satisfaction with intervention procedures. Our results suggest that peer tutoring appears to be an effective strategy for addressing the academic and behavioral difficulties associated with ADHD in general education settings.     

The social and academic adjustment experiences of first-year students at a historically disadvantaged peri-urban university in South Africa

The goal of the research was to explore the social and academic experiences of first-year students at a peri-urban university in South Africa. Eighteen students (females = 50%, mean age = 19.88 years), participated in focus group discussions on their experiences of social and academic adjustment. Data were analysed using Thematic Content Analysis. The study found that first-year students reported both positive and negative adjustment experiences. Positive academic adjustment experiences included academic and financial support, and negative ones included unsupportive lecturers and departments, workload and lack of accommodation. Positive social adjustment experiences included social and emotional support and independence, while negative experiences were experienced as disintegration which included aspects of social isolation and homesickness. First-year students’ experiences carry both benefits and costs to their sense of well-being as learners.     

Effects of Delayed Audio-Based Self-Monitoring on Teacher Completion of Learning Trials

Although instructors may teach effective instructional behaviors in pre-service training programs, pre-service teachers frequently do not generalize those behaviors to classroom practicum settings. Feedback within the practicum setting is necessary to promote generalization, but is often limited by university supervisors’ availability. Using a multiple-probe design across 3 pre-service teachers, we investigated audio self-monitoring as a method to provide feedback on the number of learning trials completed during the prior learning review section of lessons. A completed learning trial represented an opportunity for the students to both respond to a prompt and receive feedback from the pre-service teacher and represents the smallest unit of complete instruction. Results indicated that self-monitoring increased the percentage of learning trials completed by pre-service teachers, but had modest effects on rate of learning trials delivered. These findings are discussed in light of the need for methods that help bridge the gap between university-based training and classroom application of key instructional skills.     

认知能力对学业成绩的影响:有中介的调节模型

学业成绩是衡量学生掌握知识水平的重要指标,受到认知能力、社会支持和学习动机等多重因素的显著影响,而这多重因素间的关系及其对学业成绩的共同作用机制尚不明确。本研究采用标准化的认知能力测验、社会支持量表、学习动机量表对4,973名初中生进行测试,并以各科测验成绩总分的平均值作为学业成绩指标。结果表明：（1）认知能力、社会支持、学习动机均与学业成绩正相关;（2）社会支持在认知能力对学业成绩的影响中起调节作用,学生感受到的社会支持水平越高,学业成绩表现越好,且其认知能力对学业成绩的预测作用越强;（3）社会支持的调节作用部分通过学习动机这一中介变量实现。本研究构建了一个基于个体因素（认知能力和学习动机）和环境因素（社会支持）共同影响学业成绩的理论模型,有利于人们深入理解认知能力影响学业成绩的内在机制和边界条件,为提升学生学业成绩提供了理论依据和实证支持。