Couple interaction: A study of the punctuation process

This study examined couples' punctuation of their own interactions. The association between causal explanations for the interactions on issues involving differences and the nature of relatedness (i.e., degree of distress) was the major purpose of the study. Punctuation was defined as a way of grouping sequences of interactions. Punctuational differneces were operationalized by measuring couples' causal explanations and attributions of responsibility concerning their own interactions. Twenty distressed and non-distressed couples, matched on age, income, education, and length of relationship, participated in an intensive 3-hour interview conducted at their homes. Two relationship measures to determine the degree of distress were administered. The interview involved: generating issues of important differences, improvisational role plays of interactions, responses to open-ended questions about self and other perspectives, and rankings of causal explanations and attributions of responsibility about the interactions. The results suggested that the nature of relatedness, as defined by degree of distress, was associated with the punctuation of interactions by the communicators, tentatively supporting the Watzlawicket al. (1967) metacommunicational axiom. The main finding was that distressed couples attributed responsibility to the mate rather than self, whereas in nondistressed douples responsibility was shared.This article is based on a doctoral dissertation submitted to the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. The senior author is affiliated with the Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco     

Factors in the Use of Oral Contraceptives by Young Women

This study examined the use of oral contraceptives in a sample of sexually active college women. The analytic approach employed was based on Fishbein's model for the prediction of behavior, which emphasizes perceived consequences and normative influences. It was found that each of these factors was significantly related to use of oral contraception, and that a stronger relationship was obtained when both components were combined. Results suggested that nonusers are more Likely to associate oral contraception with unhealthful consequences than are users, and that users believe employment of this method enhances their sexual satisfaction. It was also suggested that the opinions of these young women's partners and close friends, but not of their parents, are reflected in respondents' use of the pill. These results were compared with earlier findings on the correlates of intentions to use oral contraceptives, and applied implications were discussed.     

Preratio pausing: effects of an alternative reinforcer on fixed- and variable-ratio responding

Seven rats responding under fixed-ratio or variable-ratio schedules of food reinforcement had continuous access to a drinking tube inserted into the operant chamber. Under different conditions they could drink either tap water or one of two saccharin solutions. In a baseline condition, the drinking bottle was empty. Preratio pausing was observed with both schedules, more so with the fixed-ratio than the variable-ratio schedule, and increasing the concentration of the saccharin solution increased the duration of pausing. Comparisons with baseline performances revealed that the additional pausing was largely, but not entirely, spent drinking. The results support the view that pausing under ratio schedules is a consequence of competition between the scheduled reinforcer and alternative reinforcers that also are available within the experimental environment.     

德国哲学专号·编者序言

作为"德国文化年·德中同行"的一个组成部分,<世界哲学>与歌德学院(中国)、德国文化中心共同推出这期德国哲学专号,主题为"ICH/自我".     

Faulty Japanese sentences are judged more grammatical when punctuation is used: negative implications for Chomsky's principle of Full Interpretation

88 adult Japanese speakers judged the grammaticality of isolated simple bitransitive sentences involving an uninterpretable extra argument in addition to three legitimate arguments. The sentences thus violated Chomsky's principle of Full Interpretation which prohibits the structure building of a sentence including uninterpretable elements. The primary variable of interest was the presence or absence of punctuation, i.e., commas, which enclosed the extra argument. Findings showed that sentences with punctuation were judged more grammatical than the ones without punctuation, with an average score of judged grammaticality exceeding 3 on a 7-point scale (1 =least grammatical; 7=most grammatical). This score would not be expected if the speakers possess and judge the sentences in conformity with the principle of Full Interpretation.     

Fixed-ratio pausing: Joint effects of past reinforcer magnitude and stimuli correlated with upcoming magnitude

Pigeons responded on fixed-ratio schedules ending in small or large reinforcers (grain presentations of different duration) interspersed within each session. In mixed-schedule conditions, the response key was lit with a single color throughout the session, and pausing was directly related to the past reinforcer (longer pauses after large reinforcers than after small ones). In multiple-schedule conditions, different colors accompanied the ratios ending in small and large reinforcers, and pausing was affected by the upcoming reinforcer as well as the past one. Pauses were shorter before large reinforcers than before small ones, but they continued to be longer after large reinforcers than after small ones. The influence of the past reinforcer was modulated by the magnitude of the upcoming reinforcer; in the presence of the stimulus before the small reinforcer, the effect of the past reinforcer was enhanced relative to its effect in the stimulus before the large reinforcer. These results show that pausing between ratios is jointly determined by two competing factors: past conditions of reinforcement and stimuli correlated with upcoming conditions.     

Leipzig Affective Norms for German: A reliability study

To facilitate investigations of verbal emotional processing, we introduce the Leipzig Affective Norms for German (LANG), a list of 1,000 German nouns that have been rated for emotional valence, arousal, and concreteness. A critical factor regarding the quality of normative word data is their reliability. We therefore acquired ratings from a sample that was tested twice, with an interval of 2 years, to calculate test—retest reliability. Furthermore, we recruited a second sample to test reliability across independent samples. The results show (1) the typical quadratic relation of valence and arousal, replicating previous data, (2) very high test—retest reliability (>.95), and (3) high correlations between the two samples (>.85). Because the range of ratings was also very high, we provide a comprehensive set of words with reliable affective norms, which makes it possible to select highly controlled subsamples varying in emotional status. The database is available as a supplement for this article at http://brm.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental.     

Gender-Related Traits as Predictors of Alcohol Use in Male German and Spanish University Students

This study examined instrumental (masculine stereotyped) and expressive (feminine stereotyped) personality traits and alcohol use among men from Germany and Spain. Participants were 161 male university students (76 German, M _age?=?23?years; 77 Spanish, M _age?=?22?years), who completed either a daytime or a nighttime drinking questionnaire, each including a Short Form of the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Poisson regression analyses with latent predictors were conducted. The trait factors and their interactions with nationality predicted daytime and nighttime alcohol use. The results add support to the assumption that alcohol use is associated with the construction of masculinity and that internalization of traditionally female attributes protects against health-risk behaviors such as alcohol consumption.     

Augustine on the Couch: Psychohistorical (Mis)readings of the Confessions

While the history of religions (HR) has a long ‘prehistory’ in Romania, its formal introduction dates only from 1925–26, with the early writings of Mircea Eliade. Eliade's career in Romania was cut short by political events and the Second World War, while the imposition of Soviet control after the war resulted in his becoming an exile. His influence led a few of his compatriots to follow in his footsteps during the dark decades of Communism, but not until the overthrow of the Ceau?escu Government in 1989 did it again become possible to engage freely in HR studies. Today these studies are flourishing as never before and bidding to attract worldwide attention.     

Apologising for the past: German science and nazi medicine

Recently, religious organisations, governments and public institutions have begun to offer apologies for historical wrongs. Can they legitimately do so? Departing from the tendency, Professor Hubert Markl, President of the Max Planck Society, has offered strong reasons for not apologising for the crimes of medical scientists who experimented on human subjects during the Nazi era. He argues that only the perpetrators can meaningfully apologise. Markl’'s position is considered and rejected in favour of the view that apologies by proxy for historical wrongs are justifiable and should be made by institutions that have the authority to do so.     

Determinants of pausing under variable-ratio schedules: Reinforcer magnitude, ratio size, and schedule configuration

Pigeons pecked a key under two-component multiple variable-ratio schedules that offered 8-s or 2-s access to grain. Phase 1 assessed the effects of differences in reinforcer magnitude on postreinforcement pausing, as a function of ratio size. In Phase 2, postreinforcement pausing and the first five interresponse times in each ratio were measured as a function of differences in reinforcer magnitude under equal variable-ratio schedules consisting of different configurations of individual ratios. Rates were also calculated exclusive of postreinforcement pause times in both phases. The results from Phase 1 showed that as ratio size increased, the differences in pausing educed by unequal reinforcer magnitudes also increased. The results of Phase 2 showed that the effects of reinforcer magnitude on pausing and IRT durations were a function of schedule configuration. Under one configuration, in which the smallest ratio was a fixed-ratio 1, pauses were unaffected by magnitude but the first five interresponse times were affected. Under the other configuration, in which the smallest ratio was a fixed-ratio 7, pauses were affected by reinforcer magnitude but the first five interresponse times were not. The effect of each configuration seemed to be determined by the value of the smallest individual ratio. Rates calculated exclusive of postreinforcement pause times were, in general, directly related to reinforcer magnitude, and the relation was shown to be a function of schedule configuration.     

Essential readings for graduate students in behavior analysis: A survey of the JEAB and JABA boards of editors

We surveyed the editorial boards of the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis in an attempt to construct an essential reading list for graduate students in behavior analysis. Respondents were asked to list up to 10 behavior-analytic journal articles, 10 behavior-analytic books, and 5 non-behavior-analytic books or journal articles that they felt were essential readings. Several behavior-analytic books were listed by members of both editorial boards, suggesting that an understanding of the philosophy of radical behaviorism and its basic principles are essential for graduate students. In contrast, a number of disparities point to differences in training and a lack of integration that may exist between basic and applied researchers. However, these disparities might also be indicative of the strength of behavior analysis. Finally, several non-behavior-analytic readings draw attention to the convergence of behavior analysis and other fields of study.     

Pause and utterance durations and fundamental frequency characteristics of repeated oral readings by stutterers and nonstutterers

Effects of repeated oral readings on durational and fundamental frequency characteristics and number and kinds of reading errors were investigated in 11 stutterers and 11 sex- +and age-matched nonstutterers. Computer analysis of durational and fundamental frequency characteristics of the first and sixth readings demonstrated statistically significant differences in mean pause duration, speaking-time ratio, and total speaking time between the stutterers and the nonstutterers. In addition, there were significant differences in mean utterance duration and number of utterances (and pauses) between the first and sixth readings. Finally, correlational analyses indicated variable performance in the stutterers whereas the nonstutterers demonstrated highly consistent performance between the first and sixth readings. Results of reading error analysis showed more and different types of reading errors by the stutterers in comparison to the nonstutterers although both groups demonstrated a reduction in reading errors from the first to the sixth readings.