Does Setting Goals Enhance Parenting Intervention Effects? A Field Experiment

People who pursue approach goals (i.e., desired outcomes to be reached) tend to be more likely to achieve their goals than people who pursue avoidance goals (i.e., undesired outcomes to be prevented). We tested this premise in a brief preventive parenting intervention targeting parental praise to reduce disruptive child behavior. We also tested whether goal setting effects depend on behavior change phase (initiation versus maintenance) and parents’ regulatory focus (high versus low promotion and prevention focus). Parents (N = 224; child age 4 ? 8) were randomized to one of four conditions: an approach goal-enhanced or an avoidance goal-enhanced intervention condition, a no-goal intervention condition, or a waitlist control condition. Outcomes were parent-reported and audio-recorded positive parenting and disruptive child behavior. Results show that goal setting had very limited effects. Setting avoidance goals, not approach goals, improved self-reported positive parenting. However, goal setting did not enhance effects of parenting intervention on observed (i.e., audio-recorded) positive parenting and disruptive child behavior. Furthermore, goal setting effects depended neither on the phase of change, nor on parents’ regulatory focus. This field experiment suggests that setting approach goals does not enhance the brief parenting intervention to improve parent-child interactions.     

Parent Training for Children With or at Risk for Developmental Delay: The Role of Parental Homework Completion

This study investigated the extent to which parental homework completion during behavioral parent training (BPT) for children with or at risk for developmental delay contributed to parenting and child outcomes. Parents of 48 children (M_age = 44.17 months, SD = 14.29; 73% male; 72% White) with developmental delay (IQ < 75) or at risk for developmental delay (due to premature birth) with co-occurring clinically elevated externalizing behavior problems received Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) as part of two previously completed randomized controlled trials. Parental homework completion was measured using parental report of home practice of treatment skills collected weekly by therapists. Parents also reported on child externalizing behavior problems and levels of parenting stress, while parenting skills were observed during a 5-min child directed play and child compliance was observed during a 5-min cleanup situation. Results indicated that higher rates of parental homework completion predicted parenting outcomes (i.e., increased positive parenting skills and decreased levels of parenting stress) and child outcomes (i.e., lower levels of externalizing behavior problems). Additionally, although limited by temporal precedence, there was an indirect effect of reductions in parenting stress on the negative association between parental homework completion and child externalizing behavior problems. These findings highlight the importance of parents practicing skills learned during BPT for optimizing treatment outcome. Parenting stress was also identified as a potential mechanism by which high levels of parental homework completion contributed to reductions in child externalizing behavior problems.     

Does Practice Make Perfect? The Relationship Between Self-Reported Treatment Homework Completion and Parental Skill Acquisition and Child Behaviors

The purpose of the current study was to examine whether the rate and type of parent-reported homework completion is associated with parent-report of child behavior outcomes, number of sessions to master parental skills as measured by therapist observation, and length of treatment in Parent–child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). Sixty-two parent–child dyads (primary caregiver: M_age = 36.35 years, female 95.20%, 81.60% White, 59.57% Hispanic; child M_age = 4.22 years; child gender male 64.50%) who completed PCIT were included in the study. A within-subjects hierarchical regression statistical design was used to examine the impact of parent report of homework completion on treatment processes and outcomes. A higher rate of self-reported homework completion was predictive of parental mastery of skill acquisition in fewer sessions and treatment completion in fewer sessions. Parent report of homework completion rate was not related to changes in child disruptive behavior after controlling for child behavior at baseline. Current study findings reinforce the importance of having parents regularly practice PCIT skills outside of session in order to decrease treatment length and facilitate the acquisition of parenting skills, which may reduce family burdens associated with attending a weekly treatment.     

Beyond behavior modification: Benefits of social–emotional/self-regulation training for preschoolers with behavior problems

The current study evaluated the initial efficacy of three intervention programs aimed at improving school readiness in preschool children with externalizing behavior problems (EBP). Participants for this study included 45 preschool children (76% boys; M_age = 5.16 years; 84% Hispanic/Latino background) with at-risk or clinically elevated levels of EBP. During the summer between preschool and kindergarten, children were randomized to receive three newly developed intervention packages. The first and most cost effective intervention package was an 8-week School Readiness Parenting Program (SRPP). Families randomized into the second and third intervention packages received not only the weekly SRPP, but children also attended two different versions of an intensive kindergarten summer readiness class (M-F, 8 a.m.–5 p.m.) that was part of an 8-week summer treatment program for pre-kindergarteners (STP-PreK). One version included the standard behavioral modification system and academic curriculum (STP-PreK) while the other additionally contained social–emotional and self-regulation training (STP-PreK Enhanced). Baseline, post-intervention, and 6-month follow-up data were collected on children's school readiness outcomes including parent, teacher, and objective assessment measures. Analyses using linear mixed models indicated that children's behavioral functioning significantly improved across all groups in a similar magnitude. Children in the STP-PreK Enhanced group, however, experienced greater growth across time in academic achievement, emotion knowledge, emotion regulation, and executive functioning compared to children in the other groups. These findings suggest that while parent training is sufficient to address children's behavioral difficulties, an intensive summer program that goes beyond behavioral modification and academic preparation by targeting socio-emotional and self-regulation skills can have incremental benefits across multiple aspects of school readiness.     

Improving parent–child interactions through interactive reading workshops

IntroductionMany authors agree on the importance of training parents in early literacy strategies.ObjectiveThis study analyses the effects of an intervention to improve parent–child interactions during reading sessions, using interactive reading techniques.MethodThe design is exploratory and includes a treatment group (n = 22), which benefited from four interactive reading workshops, and a control group (n = 18), which did not benefit from specific training. Both groups read the same books, three times a week, for 10 weeks. The children come from middle socioeconomic backgrounds and attend preschool or kindergarten (grades 1–3).ResultsThe analyses were conducted on the basis of pre- and post-intervention video observations, coded using the Adult–Child Interactive Reading Inventory (ACIRI). Results from an ANCOVA show that parental behavior, and in turn child behavior, improves in post-intervention: parents improve their children's attention to the text and implement literacy strategies, while the children become more involved in the interactions.ConclusionInteractive reading workshops for parents improve the quantity and quality of parent–child interactions when reading books in a natural and playful context.     

Randomized Controlled Trial of a Family Intervention for Children Bullied by Peers

This study examined the effects of a family intervention on victimization and emotional distress of children bullied by peers. The intervention, Resilience Triple P, combined facilitative parenting and teaching children social and emotional skills relevant to developing strong peer relationships and addressing problems with peers. Facilitative parenting is parenting that supports the development of children’s peer relationship skills. A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 111 families who reported chronic bullying of children aged 6 to 12 years. Families were randomly allocated to either an immediate start to Resilience Triple P (RTP) or an assessment control (AC) condition. Assessments involving children, parents, teachers, and observational measures were conducted at 0 (pre), 3 (post) and 9 months follow-up. RTP families had significantly greater improvements than AC families on measures of victimization, child distress, child peer and family relationships, including teacher reports of overt victimization (d = 0.56), child internalizing feelings (d = 0.59), depressive symptoms (d = 0.56), child overt aggression towards peers (d = 0.51), acceptance by same sex and opposite sex peers (d = 0.46/ 0.60), and child liking school (d = 0.65). Families in both conditions showed significant improvements on most variables over time including child reports of bullying in the last week reducing to a near zero and indistinguishable from the normative sample. The intervention combining facilitative parenting and social and emotional skills training for children produced better results than the comparison assessment control condition. This study demonstrated that family interventions can reduce victimization and distress and strengthen school efforts to address bullying.     

A community led approach to delivery of the Parents Plus Children's Programme for the parents of children aged 6–11

Childhood internalising and externalising disorders tend to persist when left untreated and place affected individuals at higher risk of compromised outcomes. The social costs include school dropout, unemployment, family breakdown and substance abuse. Effective preventive interventions require a public health approach. The aim of this experimental study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Parents Plus Children's Programme (PPCP) delivered in community and school contexts by frontline professionals from diverse backgrounds. Participating parents with children aged 6 to 11 were randomly assigned to a Treatment Group (n = 44) or a no treatment Control Group (n = 31). The efficacy of training was assessed using self-report questionnaires completed by participants in both Treatment and Control groups. Significant post treatment improvements were recorded on measures of parenting-related stress, child problem behaviour and parent satisfaction with medium to large effect sizes. Treatment group results were maintained at six-month follow-up. These results support the efficacy of the PPCP as a community led intervention with potential to prevent and interrupt child behaviour problems through supported parenting practice, before problems become critical and entrenched.     

Harsh parenting and academic achievement in Chinese adolescents: Potential mediating roles of effortful control and classroom engagement

This study examined (a) the potential mediating roles of effortful control and classroom engagement in the association between harsh parenting and adolescent academic achievement, and (b) the potential moderating role of gender. Sixth through eighth graders in rural China (n = 815, mean age = 12.55 years) reported on harsh parenting, effortful control, and classroom engagement. Parents also reported on each other's harsh parenting. Academic achievement was assessed by students' test scores and teacher-rated academic performance. Results of structural equation modeling revealed gender differences in patterns of association among the model variables. Harsh parenting was negatively and directly associated with academic achievement for both boys and girls. It was also negatively and indirectly associated with academic achievement via effortful control and classroom engagement sequentially, forming a common indirect “path” for boys and girls. The indirect negative effect of harsh parenting on boys' academic achievement was mainly realized through the mediator of effortful control, whereas this same indirect effect for girls was mainly realized through the mediator of classroom engagement. Jointly, effortful control and classroom engagement precipitates more indirect effects for boys than for girls in the association between harsh parenting and academic achievement. The discussion analyzes the potential “paths” from harsh parenting to adolescent academic achievement, as well as gender differences in these “paths.” The current study has implications for teachers and parents eager to improve students' classroom engagement and academic achievement.     

Parent perfectionism and psychopathology symptoms and child perfectionism

Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct associated with various psychological problems. Studies regarding risk factors for perfectionism are scarce but evidence suggests that parents may be highly involved in their child’s perfectionism. The present study included 160 children aged 8–17 years (67 males, 93 females) and their parents. Relationships between parent and child perfectionism and between parent psychopathology and child perfectionism were examined across 5 age groups (8–9 years, 10–11 years, 12–13 years, 14–15 years, 16–17 years). Self-oriented perfectionism was highest among children aged 16–17 years. Maternal perfectionism and maternal psychopathology predicted child self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. Maternal anxiety mediated the relationship between maternal other-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism in children aged 8–12 years. Maternal perfectionism and psychopathology may constitute risk factors for child perfectionism. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for theories of perfectionism.     

Patterns of Parental Adherence and the Association to Child and Parenting Outcomes Following a Multicomponent School-Home Intervention for Youth With ADHD

The goal of the present study was to evaluate the role of parent adherence in the Collaborative Life Skills (CLS) program, a multicomponent school-home intervention, for predicting child and parenting outcomes. A sample of 129 children (63% male; M age = 8.22, SD = 1.10; grades 2–5) with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and their parents participated in CLS, which included 10 weekly behavioral parent training group sessions. Each week, parents provided information on their CLS skill use between sessions (at home) as part of the intervention. Outcome measures included parent and teacher ratings of child behavior and parenting at post-intervention and 6 months follow-up. Growth mixture models examining weekly parent skill use trajectories throughout the intervention significantly predicted parent- and teacher-reported outcomes including parent-rated child behavior, teacher-rated academic competence, and positive parenting behaviors. Fifty-two percent of parents displayed moderate skill use throughout the intervention, whereas the remaining parents had either low (20%) or high (28%) initial levels of use but demonstrated high skill utilization by the middle of the intervention. Results highlight the importance of examining individual differences in parents between session strategy use for behavioral parent training interventions targeting child and parenting outcomes.     

Parenting to prevent body dissatisfaction and unhealthy eating patterns in preschool children: A Delphi consensus study

Interventions to prevent body dissatisfaction and unhealthy eating patterns are needed in early childhood. Identifying effective parenting strategies would be useful for parents and prevention researchers. To develop expert consensus, an online Delphi study was conducted with experts (N = 28, M_age = 44.34) who rated statements describing potential parenting strategies gleaned from a systematic literature search. If 90–100% rated a statement as either Essential or Important, it was endorsed as a guideline. From a total of 335 statements 153 were endorsed. Despite some areas of disagreement, including whether parents should weigh their child or discourage weighing, experts were able to reach consensus on a wide range of issues, such as how to discuss healthy eating with children. The developed guidelines provide a novel and required resource for parents, and a framework for researchers developing interventions to prevent the onset of body dissatisfaction and unhealthy eating patterns in early childhood.     

Parents en résidence alternée et relation coparentale : le rôle de la relation d’attachement entre les ex-partenaires et des variables liées au contexte de la séparation conjugale

A context–process–outcomes model was proposed to examined the effect of a variety of factors associated with divorce on post-divorce coparental relationship in a sample of joint physical custody parents with children aged between 4 years and 12 years old (50–50) (n = 38). Parents completed questionnaires evaluating quality of coparental relationship. This variable is analyzed through 2 indicators: the parenting alliance and the hostility. The results revealed that attachment between former spouses and the kind of legal decision emerged as significant predictors of coparental relationship. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, higher level of preoccupation was found to predict more supportive parental alliance. Implications for research and intervention are discussed.     

A Parent-Teen Collaborative Treatment Model for Academically Impaired High School Students With ADHD

The current study pilots a low-intensity behavioral intervention for parents and high school students with ADHD that promotes parent-teen collaboration at home and in session (Supporting Teens’ Academic Needs Daily-Group; STAND-G). Twenty-three high school students with ADHD and their parents were randomly assigned to receive an 8-week behavioral treatment beginning in October, January, or March. Weekly data were collected from students’ online grade books for 37 weeks of the school year to monitor changes in academic functioning through baseline, posttreatment, and follow-up phases. Students who had not yet received the treatment served as a control group for students who completed treatment. Qualitative and quantitative ratings of satisfaction, improvement, and parent implementation of home-based behavioral strategies were collected. Results indicated parent and teen satisfaction with STAND-G, parent compliance with intervention strategies, and a range of parent-rated therapeutic benefits (i.e., organization and time-management skills, academic conscientiousness, parent-teen communication, adolescent autonomy). Findings for the objective grade book data were mixed, with Group 2 (January), but not Group 1 (October), displaying identifiable acute improvements relative to control students. However, both groups evaluated at follow-up displayed meaningful improvements in the percentage of work turned in up to 2 months out of treatment. With these results in mind, we discuss the importance of tailoring interventions to the lives of high school students with ADHD and the future of treatment development and delivery for this often underserved population.     

Infant patterns of reactivity to tactile stimulation during parent-child interaction

Touch is the primary modality infants use to engage with the world; atypical responses to tactile stimuli may indicate risk for disordered outcomes. The current study examined infants’ responses to tactile stimulation within parent-child interaction, adding to prior knowledge based on parent report. Nine-month-old infants (N = 497) were observed while parents painted and pressed infants’ hands and feet to paper to make designs. Positive and negative affect and gazing away, exploring, and resistance behaviors were coded. Latent Class Analysis of observed behaviors yielded four tactile response patterns partially consistent with current nosology for sensory processing patterns: Low Reactive, Sensory Overreactive, Sensory Seeking, and Mixed Over/Underreactive. To evaluate whether patterns made valid distinctions among infants, latent classes were examined in relation to parent-reported temperament. Infants in the Mixed Over/Underreactive class were rated higher in distress to limitations and activity level than other infants. Sensory processing patterns observed in parent-child interaction are consistent with those identified by parent-report and may be used in future research to elucidate relations with temperament and typical and atypical development.     

“I would have lost the respect of my friends and family if they knew I had bent the road rules”: Parents,peers, and the perilous behaviour of young drivers

Young novice drivers are at considerable risk of injury on the road. Their behaviour appears vulnerable to the social influence of their parents and friends. The nature and mechanisms of parent and peer influence on young novice driver (16–25 years) behaviour was explored via small group interviews (n = 21) and two surveys (n1 = 1170, n2 = 390) to inform more effective young driver countermeasures. Parental and peer influence occurred in pre-Licence, Learner, and Provisional (intermediate) periods. Pre-Licence and unsupervised Learner drivers reported their parents were less likely to punish risky driving (e.g., speeding). These drivers were more likely to imitate their parents and reported their parents were also risky drivers. Young novice drivers who experienced or expected social punishments from peers, including ‘being told off’ for risky driving, reported less riskiness. Conversely drivers who experienced or expected social rewards such as being ‘cheered on’ by friends – who were also more risky drivers – reported more risky driving including crashes and offences. Interventions enhancing positive influence and curtailing negative influence may improve road safety outcomes not only for young novice drivers, but for all persons who share the road with them. Parent-specific interventions warrant further development and evaluation including: modelling safe driving behaviour by parents; active monitoring of driving during novice licensure; and sharing the family vehicle during the intermediate phase. Peer-targeted interventions including modelling of safe driving behaviour and attitudes; minimisation of social reinforcement and promotion of social sanctions for risky driving also need further development and evaluation.     

Developmental outcomes of toddlers of young Latina mothers: Cultural,family, and parenting factors

Children of adolescent mothers are at risk for poor developmental outcomes. This study is among the first to examine how cultural, family, and parenting factors prospectively predict the cognitive and language development of children of young Latina mothers (N = 170; M_age = 17.9 years). Mothers were interviewed and observed interacting with their children at 18 months (W1). Children were tested at 18 (W1) and 24 (W2) months. Mothers’ cultural orientation (W1) was related to aspects of the childrearing environment (W1), which in turn had implications for the children's development (W2). Specifically, a stronger orientation toward American culture was related to higher mother-reported engagement in parenting by their own mothers (grandmothers), which in turn predicted stronger gains in cognitive and expressive language functioning from W1 to W2. A stronger Latino orientation related to the display of more directiveness and greater mother-reported engagement by the children's biological fathers; directiveness, in turn, predicted fewer gains in cognitive functioning only when father engagement was low and did not predict expressive language development. Finally, mothers’ display of more positive affect, a stronger American orientation, and higher grandmother engagement uniquely predicted gains in W2 expressive language functioning. Implications for intervention are discussed.     

Exposing Clinicians to Exposure: A Randomized Controlled Dissemination Trial of Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders

ObjectiveThe present study evaluated three technology-based methods of training mental health providers in exposure therapy (ET) for anxiety disorders. Training methods were designed to address common barriers to the dissemination of ET, including limited access to training, negative clinician attitudes toward ET, and lack of support during and following training.MethodClinicians naïve to ET (N = 181, M_age = 37.4, 71.3% female, 72.1% Caucasian) were randomly assigned to (a) an interactive, multimedia online training (OLT), (b) OLT plus a brief, computerized motivational enhancement intervention (OLT + ME), or (c) OLT + ME plus a Web-based learning community (OLT + ME + LC). Assessments were completed at baseline, posttraining, and 6 and 12 weeks following training. Outcomes include satisfaction, knowledge, self-efficacy, attitudes, self-reported clinical use, and observer-rated clinical proficiency.ResultsAll three training methods led to large and comparable improvements in self-efficacy and clinical use of ET, indicating that OLT alone was sufficient for improving these outcomes. The addition of the ME intervention did not significantly improve outcomes in comparison to OLT alone. Supplementing the OLT with both the ME intervention and the LC significantly improved attitudes and clinical proficiency in comparison to OLT alone. The OLT + ME + LC condition was superior to both other conditions in increasing knowledge of ET.ConclusionsMulticomponent trainings that address multiple potential barriers to dissemination appear to be most effective in improving clinician outcomes. Technology-based training methods offer a satisfactory, effective, and scalable way to train mental health providers in evidence-based treatments such as ET.     

The utility of single-item readiness screeners in middle school

This study examined the benefit of utilizing one-item academic and one-item behavior readiness teacher-rated screeners at the beginning of the school year to predict end-of-school year outcomes for middle school students. The Middle School Academic and Behavior Readiness (M-ABR) screeners were developed to provide an efficient and effective way to assess readiness in students. Participants included 889 students in 62 middle school classrooms in an urban Missouri school district. Concurrent validity with the M-ABR items and other indicators of readiness in the fall were evaluated using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, with the academic readiness item having medium to strong correlations with other baseline academic indicators (r = ± 0.56 to 0.91) and the behavior readiness item having low to strong correlations with baseline behavior items (r = ± 0.20 to 0.79). Next, the predictive validity of the M-ABR items was analyzed with hierarchical linear regressions using end-of-year outcomes as the dependent variable. The academic and behavior readiness items demonstrated adequate validity for all outcomes with moderate effects (β = ± 0.31 to 0.73 for academic outcomes and β = ± 0.24 to 0.59 for behavioral outcomes) after controlling for baseline demographics. Even after controlling for baseline scores, the M-ABR items predicted unique variance in almost all outcome variables. Four conditional probability indices were calculated to obtain an optimal cut score, to determine ready vs. not ready, for both single-item M-ABR scales. The cut point of “fair” yielded the most acceptable values for the indices. The odd ratios (OR) of experiencing negative outcomes given a “fair” or lower readiness rating (2 or below on the M-ABR screeners) at the beginning of the year were significant and strong for all outcomes (OR = 2.29 to OR = 14.46), except for internalizing problems. These findings suggest promise for using single readiness items to screen for varying negative end-of-year student outcomes.     

How parents introduce new words to young children: The influence of development and developmental disorders

This study documents how parents weave new words into on-going interactions with children who are just beginning to speak. Dyads with typically developing toddlers and with young children with autism spectrum disorder and Down syndrome (n = 56, 23, and 29) were observed using a Communication Play Protocol during which parents could use novel words to refer to novel objects. Parents readily introduced both labels and sound words even when their child did not respond expressively or produce the words. Results highlight both how parents act in ways that may facilitate their child's appreciation of the relation between a new word and its referent and how they subtly adjust their actions to suit their child's level of word learning and specific learning challenges.     

A crossover randomised and controlled trial of the impact of active video games on motor coordination and perceptions of physical ability in children at risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder

BackgroundImpaired motor development can significantly affect a child’s life and may result in an increased risk of a range of physical and psychological disorders. Active video game (AVG) interventions have been demonstrated to enhance motor skills in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD); however a home-based intervention has not been assessed.ObjectivesThe primary aim of this study was to compare the changes in motor coordination between a 16 week period of AVG use, with 16 weeks of normal activities (NAG). The secondary aim was to compare the child and parent perceptions of their physical performance between the AVG and NAG conditions.MethodsTwenty-one 9–12 year olds (10 males) were confirmed to be at risk of DCD (⩽16th percentile Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (MABC-2) and ⩽15th percentile Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ)) and participated in this crossover randomised and controlled trial. Data was collected at study entry, after the first 16 week condition and following the final 16 week condition, including; (1) the MABC-2, (2) three-dimensional motion analysis of single leg balance and finger–nose tasks, and (3) parent perception of physical skills. Participant perception of physical skills was collected only after the first and second conditions.ResultsThere was no significant difference between AVG and NAG for any of the primary variables including the MABC-2, balance centre-of-mass path distance and finger–nose path distance. There was no significant intervention effect for secondary measures of motor coordination; however the children perceived their motor skills to be significantly enhanced as a result of the AVG intervention in comparison to the period of no intervention.ConclusionA 16 week home based AVG intervention did not enhance motor skills in children with DCD, although they perceived their physical skills to be significantly improved.Trial Registration: Australia and New Zealand Clinical trials Registry (ACTRN 12611000400965).