Is behavioral pro-sociality game-specific? Pro-social preference and expectations of pro-sociality

We observed the behaviors of the same people across five games – two prisoner’s dilemma games, a trust game (in which the subject took on the role of both truster and trustee), a dictator game, and a faith game – any pair of which was separated by an interval of several months to reduce potential carry-over effects, and found strong consistency in behaviors among these games. We also found consistency between the expectations of other players’ behaviors and the player’s own behavior across games. We further found that the consistent behavioral pro-sociality observed across different games was related to the general measures of pro-social value orientation and perceiving the game situations. These findings suggest that individual and cultural differences in game behaviors can reflect both the ways in which people perceive game situations and their general social preferences.     

Teaching Young Children Responses to Inappropriate Approaches by Strangers in Public Places

The application of behavioral principles to a wide array of social problems is not noly appropriate; in many areas, it is critical. The popular press has recently focused a great deal of attention on the sexual abuse, molestation, kidnapping, and abduction of children. The goals of the present study were as follows: (1) to train children to respond to approaches by stangers in public places, (2) to assess short-term maintenance of the responses, and (3) to socially validate the procedures and situations. Social validation efforts included the contracting teachers, parents, local law enforcement officers, welfare workers, a special council for child protective services, the local Campfire offic and faculty persons in related disciplines. Popular literature was examined to obtain general lists of potential situations and recommended behaviors on the part of the child. The professionals consulted assisted the experimenter in narrowing the situations and responses to those most applicable locally. A multiple baseline across subjects design was used, with six subjects assessed and trained in pairs. Each subject showed little or no ability to actually respond appropriately to strangers during baseline assessment. Only with the introduction of the intervention phase did the subjects behaviors change to learn correct responses for the two selected situations. A three-week follow-up revealed correct responses maintained at acceptable levels.     

An examination of behavioral consistency using individual behaviors or groups of behaviors in serial homicide

Establishing behavioral consistency in serial homicide offending behavior is essential when linking homicides together and to a common offender. An examination of 35 serial homicide behaviors utilized by 90 offenders in 450 serial homicide cases was carried out to identify whether these offenders consistently performed the same behaviors across their series of homicides and whether it is more effective to examine individual behaviors or groupings of behaviors in order to identify behavioral consistency. This study provides the first empirically based evidence testing the use of using single behaviors as linking factors in linking homicide cases in a series, and shows that this method has inherent difficulties in accomplishing this, thus providing the first wave of empirical testing that questions current theories in the literature on serial homicide, which has suggested that signatures or specific key behaviors are important in understanding the consistency in an offender's behavior across the crimes. Recommendations for future studies on linking using signatures are suggested, including a more in-depth qualitative empirical evaluation of individual series.     

动物个体差异研究对人格心理学的贡献

动物个体差异的研究与人格心理学的关系已经引起了很多学者的关注。虽然对动物个体差异有许多相关描述,但文章采用一个广泛的工作定义,即动物在不同的情景下一致表现出来的一套相关行为。对动物个体差异的测量需要考虑物种间的可比较性和物种内的充分性。文章从人格结构的探讨,遗传和环境的作用,理解人格与认知、健康的关系,以及个体与环境的匹配等方面讨论和分析了动物个体差异的研究对人格心理学的可能贡献     

Positional Sequences in Two-Choice Discrimination Problems with Non-Positional Cues

Individuals seem to differ in their ability to maintain consistent performance. This is obviously an important attribute of behavior that has been largely neglected by researchers. There is, however, some evidence to suggest that, in certain types of situations, the behaviors of the mental retardate are characterized by a relatively high degree of variability. Two studies are reported here that deal with some of the developmental implications of intraindividual variability. In one study, involving retardates, reliability and generality of response consistency were examined in reaction time, time estimation, and digit span tasks. It was shown that individual differences in consistency are reliable and that these generalize across tasks. A second experiment was concerned with the developmental aspects of variability. First-, third-, and fifth-grade pupils and college students were given many trials on a reaction-time task. A variety of measures, reflecting typical performance, limit of performance, and variability, were computed for each subject. The ability to react quickly shows a developmental trend not only with respect to overall performance, but also in the efficiency with whichthe individual maintains his optimal level of responding.     

Teachers' Conservatism, Openness to Change, Transcendence and Self-Enhancement in Daily Life and in School Situations

In the present study we examined conservatism, openness to change, transcendence and self-enhancement as reflected in the relationships among teachers' values, attitudes and behaviors that presumably share common motivations, in daily life as well as in school situations. It is assumed that values cannot be fully understood and meaningfully measured without reference to the attitudes and behaviors which express them. In this study we hypothesized that the relationships among values as expressed in Schwartz's theory (e.g., 1992), also guide relationships among the respective attitudes and behaviors. We expected more consistency among values, attitudes and behaviors in daily-life as compared to school situations. Participants were 130 Israeli female teachers. Findings revealed compatibility between values and attitudes sharing common motivations and partial but nevertheless lawful relationships between values, attitudes and behaviors. We found that teachers' conservative behavior in daily life and their openness to change and transcendence in school situations were explained both by values and attitudes. However, attitudes were mediators between values and behaviors only with regard to conservatism in daily life and openness to change in school situations. We also found that across the motivational themes, values explained behaviors in daily life situations whereas attitudes explained behaviors in school situations.     

7岁儿童在助人情境中的行为表现及其与父母教养方式的关系

在实验室结构观察中穿插3个助人情境,观察119名7岁儿童(男42,女77)的行为表现,并考察其三种行为与父母教养方式的关系。结果发现:7岁儿童在三种情境中的助人行为无显著的性别差异,在"搬桌子"和"砸脚"情境中男孩的游戏行为显著多于女孩,观望行为显著少于女孩。儿童的行为表现与同性别的家长教养方式关系更强。     

Persons, situations, and time: a genetic view of behavioral change in children.

Twin children participating in a longitudinal study were observed at 9, 12, 18, 24, and 30 months of age in two settings: unstructured free play and relatively structured test taking. Behaviors relating to adaptability to the two settings were rated and the scores analyzed for evidence of continuity both across settings and across ages. Age-to-age correlations for the adaptability scores for each setting yielded a simplex pattern of low-moderate order. Correlations of individuals' scores across settings were also of low-moderate order. Within-pair correlations indicated that identical twins were more similar that same-sex fraternal twins in both settings, but correlations were consistently stronger in the playroom setting. Analysis of variance was performed to test for within-pair concordance in the direction and degree of change. Identical pairs remained significantly more similar in adaptability from one setting to another even when change in adaptability occurred. Similar results were found for change across ages; however, these differences were significant only in the playroom setting. Results suggest that situation variables contribute to the low stabilities frequently reported for personality dimensions but that the direction and degree of behavioral change are genetically conditioned.     

Consistency in catecholamine excretion in laboratory and natural settings: correlational and variance components analyses

Data from 20 healthy male subjects were used to evaluate the consistency in catecholamine excretion in both laboratory and natural situations during approximately a 48-hr period. Correlational analyses showed high interindividual consistency in adrenaline excretion under laboratory conditions regardless of degree and kind of activity and of the interval at which measures were taken. In non-standardized natural situations the consistency was low. For nor adrenaline the pattern was less regular. Analysis of variance components showed that absolute consistency was high in both amines in situations with similar activity content and low activity level. It was found that the more similar the situations the more of variation in catecholamine excretion was due to interindividual differences and the more dissimilar the situations the more of the variation was due to interaction. It is concluded that the degree of consistency in catecholamine excretion varies with situational characteristics.     

Cross-situational consistency of affective experiences across cultures

This study examined cross-situational consistency of affective experiences using an experience-sampling method in Japan, India, and the United States. Participants recorded their moods and situations when signaled at random moments for 7 days. The authors examined relative (interindividual) consistency and absolute (within-person) consistency. They found stable interindividual differences of affective experiences across various situations (mean r =.52 for positive affect.51 for negative affect) and cultural invariance of the cross-situational consistency of affective experiences. Simultaneously, the authors found a considerable degree of within-person cross-situational variation in affective experiences, and cultural differences in within-person cross-situational consistency. Thus, global affective traits exist among non-Western samples, but the degree to which situations exert an influence on the absolute level of affective experience varies across cultures.     

Consistency of social anxiety in psychiatric patients: Properties of persons,situations, response classes,and types of data

The focus of this study was to investigate the consistency of observed overt behaviors, psychophysiological measures, and reported cognitions in high and low socially anxious psychiatric patients. Forty-seven psychiatric patients (25 high and 22 low socially anxious ones) were exposed to two situations: the initiation of a conversation and the refusal of a request. For both groups of subjects, consistency across situations (Situations) and trait indicators (Reactions) was highest for psychophysiological measures. Observed overt behaviors showed the lowest consistency across Situations and Reactions. Substantial evidence was found for the consistency of Persons x Situations and Persons x Reactions interactions. Moreover, high socially anxious subjects showed a higher consistency than low socially anxious patients with respect to observed overt behaviors and reported cognitions. Using psychophysiological measures, low socially anxious patients showed higher consistency than high socially anxious subjects. The implications for the assessment of social anxiety are discussed.     

The Liking-Similarity Effect: Perceptions of Similarity as a Function of Liking

In these two studies, we examined whether the inferences people make about likable and dislikable targets align with the predictions of balance theory. We hypothesized that people exhibit a liking-similarity effect by perceiving greater similarity with a likable person than a dislikable person. To test this hypothesis, we manipulated the likability of a target person and then assessed participants’ perceptions of similarity to that target person. In both studies, people rated likable others as more similar to themselves than dislikable others across a variety of domains (e.g., attitudes, personality characteristics, behaviors). In Study 2, individual differences in self-concept clarity, self-esteem, and preference for consistency moderated the liking-similarity effect.     

The altruistic personality and the self-report altruism scale

This paper is divided into two parts. In the first, the rank order stability of individual differences in altruism across situations is examined and it is found that substantial consistency occurs when due regard is given to the principle of aggregation. In the second, a self-report altruism scale, on which respondents rate the frequency with which they have engaged in some 20 specific behaviors, is found to predict such criteria as peer-ratings of altruism, completing an organ-donor card, and paper-and-pencil measures of prosocial orientation. These data suggest there is a broad-based trait of altruism.     

Temperamental surgency and emotion regulation as predictors of childhood social competence

The primary aims of the current study were to longitudinally examine the direct relationship between children's temperamental surgency and social behaviors as well as the moderating role of children's emotion regulation. A total of 90 4.5-year-old children participated in a laboratory visit where children's temperamental surgency was rated by experimenters and children's emotion regulation abilities were assessed. The summer before entry into first grade, children's social behaviors with unfamiliar peers were observed in the laboratory and mothers completed a questionnaire about children's social behaviors. Supporting our hypotheses, results revealed that children high in temperamental surgency developed more negative peer behaviors, whereas children low in temperamental surgency were more likely to develop behavioral wariness with peers. Emotion regulatory behaviors were found to moderate the relation between temperamental surgency and aggression, where high-surgent children who showed high levels of social support seeking were less likely to be rated by their mothers as high in aggression. Furthermore, results revealed that low-surgent children who showed high levels of distraction/self-soothing were more likely to show behavioral wariness around unfamiliar peers, whereas high-surgent children who used more distraction/self-soothing behaviors were rated by their mothers as lower in social competence.     

Cultural influences on preference consistency: Consistency at the individual and collective levels

Previous research has shown that there are cultural differences in self-concept consistency across situations. However, little is known about cultural differences in preference consistency over time. The present research examined whether Americans are more consistent in their preferences over time than are Japanese. As hypothesized, there were cultural differences in self-reported ( and ) and actual ( and ) preference consistency over time. Further, cultural differences in preference consistency at the individual level (Study 1) were found to aggregate into collective level differences ( and ) in the consistency of preference trends, such as the popularity of baby names. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

Towards a resolution of the personality triad: Persons,situations, and behaviors

The issue of the variant vs. invariant in personality often arises in different forms of the “person–situation” debate, which is based on a false dichotomy between the personal and situational determination of behavior. Previously reported data are summarized that demonstrate how behavior can vary as a function of subtle situational changes while individual consistency is maintained. Further discussion considers the personal source of behavioral invariance, the situational source of behavioral variation, the person–situation interaction, the nature of behavior, and the “personality triad” of persons, situations, and behaviors, in which each element is understood and predicted in terms of the other two. An important goal for future research is further development of theories and methods for conceptualizing and measuring the functional aspects of situations and of behaviors. One reason for the persistence of the person situation debate may be that it serves as a proxy for a deeper, implicit debate over values such as equality vs. individuality, determinism vs. free will, and flexibility vs. consistency. However, these value dichotomies may be as false as the person–situation debate that they implicitly drive.     

Judgments About Sexism: A Policy Capturing Approach

Different definitions of sexism have been usedby different experimenters and little attention has beengiven to the possibility that participants' definitionsof sexism might vary across individuals and across situations, just as the definitions ofinvestigators vary. Judgments about sexism areinextricably based on individual perceptions, values,and beliefs. It would seem reasonable, therefore toexamine individual conceptions of what constitutessexism. A total of 95 primarily middle-class Caucasianparticipants (68 females, 27 males) participated inthree studies investigating what information people use in deciding whether or not a male actor issexist. Six specific categories of information (or cues)were examined: (1) comments (or lack thereof) by theactor on a female target's physical appearance, (2) unwanted or inappropriate physical contact(or lack thereof), (3) assumptions (or lack thereof)about the target's work, personality, etc., based on hergender, (4) the target being interrupted (or not) by the actor, (5) an apparent powerdifferential (or lack thereof) between the actor and thetarget, and (6) assumptions by the actor aboutappropriate gender role behaviors. A policy capturingmethodology was employed in which three different sets ofscenarios, each describing a number of interactions(called profiles) between a target and an actor, werepresented to male and female participants who rated the degree of sexism exhibited by the actor ineach scenario. Policy capturing represents anideographic approach to research in which the primaryfocus is on establishing statistical parameter estimates that describe each individual's behavior in avariety of environmental situations. Only when that isaccomplished does the researcher examine the possiblenomothetic aggregations across participants. Thus many fewer participants are required than intraditional nomothetic approaches. Each profile set useda different subset of the cues which contained eithersubtle (Study 1), overt (Study 2), or very overt (Study 3)levels of the cues. Multipleregression analysis revealed that when relatively overtacts of sexism were described, most participants hadreliable policies; that is, their judgments werepredictable from the cues. However, when relatively subtleacts of sexism were described, most participants did nothave reliable policies; that is, their judgments werenot very predictable from the cues. There were large individual differences in howparticipants weighted the importance of various cues,especially with subtle cue levels, and in participants'mean sexism ratings.     

Effects of differential reinforcement on the behavior and self-esteem of children with emotional and behavioral disorders

Students in a residential special school for children with emotional and behavioral disorders participated in a study designed to reduce their levels of inappropriate behavior. The residential care staff rated the students' behavioral problems and their class teachers rated their overt self-esteem pre and post intervention. In addition, the students completed self-ratings of their self-esteem. The students were divided into two groups, experimental and control. A multiple baseline across behaviors design was used to assess behavioral changes in the experimental group. Both groups received tangible rewards to the same level but only the experimental group received them contingent upon behaving appropriately. Results showed that the experimental group students made substantial reductions in their levels of inappropriate behavior, which were maintained at a three-month followup. Also, ratings of their behavioral problems by residential child care staff suggested that this improvement in behavior had generalized beyond the classroom to the residential setting. However, no significant differences were found between the pre- and post-intervention ratings of their self-esteem or teacher ratings of their overt self-esteem.     

Self-Monitoring and Idiographic Measures of Behavioral Variability Across Interpersonal Relationships

ABSTRACT Sixty-five subjects were assessed by a computer program that asked them to list the primary people they interact with, the situations they inhabit with these people, and the traits and behaviors they typically show with these people The program stored these data as a tree of information Subjects also kept detailed behavioral diaries over a 10-day period and completed Snyder's (1974) Self-Monitoring Scale The consistency of subjects' behaviors and settings over interpersonal relationships was computed from the computer data and from behavioral diaries Results indicated that consistency as assessed idiographically from computer data, consistency as assessed idiographically from diaries, and self-monitoring were intercorrelated These results illustrate the possibility of wedding idiographic and nomothetic approaches in research on the consistency and variability of behavior