Conception and self-attribution of sex-role behavior: A cross-cultural comparison between Swedish and kibbutz-raised lsraelian children

The conception of typical female and male sex-role behavior and self-attribution of sex-role behavior in Swedish children were compared to conception and self-attribution in kibbutz-raised Israelian children. Two hundred and fourteen Swedish children aged 7–8 years and 68 Swedish and 56 Israelian children aged 10–12 years participated. It was hypothesised that Swedish children would be more traditional regarding sex-role behavior both with respect to their conception and to their self-attribution than the kibbutz-raised Israelian children since the strive for equality between the sexes, according to the kibbutz ideology, has been more pronounced in Israel than in Sweden. The results did not confirm the hypothesis. No cultural difference was found neither with respect to conception of typical female and male sex-role behavior, nor to the proportion of traditional and androgynous sex-typing regarding self-attribution.     

Sex-Stereotyped and Nonstereotyped Introductions of New Toys in the Preschool Classroom: An Observational Study of Teacher Behavior and Its Effects

In Study 1, the behavior of teachers in introducing sex-typed and nonsex-typed toys in the classroom was observed in nine preschool classes. Results indicated that teachers called on more boys to demonstrate a "masculine" toy than girls, p<01. No significant differences were found in the mean number of boys and girls called on to demonstrate "neutral" or "feminine" toys. However, teachers were more variable in demonstrating the sex-typed feminine toys than the nonstereotyped toy, p<05. In a second study, two sets of toys, each including five dolls and five trucks, were introduced using stereotyped and nonstereotyped introductions to two classes of 3- and 4-year-old children. No significant sex differences in toy choices were found following the nonstereotyped introductions. Following the stereotyped introductions, the children's toy choices were consistent with sex-role stereotypes. These results are consistent with laboratory studies suggesting that bias in the introduction of toys by adults may contribute to the sex-typing of specific activities.     

Sex-role differences in children's identification with counterstereotypical televised portrayals

Studies of television's effects on children's sex-role learning suggest that the medium's current contribution is toward traditional sex-role development, but the medium may be effective in fostering nontraditional sex-role learning. The purpose was to determine television's effectiveness in promoting nonsexist role learning among children with different sex-role orientations. The Bem Sex Role Inventory was adapted to empirically define the sex-role preferences of 124 girls and 114 boys, aged 9 to 12. After viewing a television program designed to diminish sex-role stereotypes, respondents indicated the extent of their identification with the characters. The results suggest that androgynous children tend to be as likely as feminine children, and more likely than masculine children, to identify with nontraditional televised models.This study was conducted as a portion of the author's doctoral dissertation at the University of Southern California. Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Aimée Dorr for her valuable suggestions.     

Dimensions and correlates of third through eighth graders' sex-role self-concepts

The sex-role self-concepts of 238 third- through eighth-grade children were assessed by means of a modified Bem Sex Role Inventory. Most children's sex-role self-concepts were congruent with their biological sex, although a large portion of the sample was categorized as having androgynous self-concepts (33.98% of males and 31.11% of females). The frequency of cross-sex-role self-concepts was very low. The stability of children's sex-role self-concepts was evidenced by nonsignificant developmental trends in the percentage of children classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated. The relationship between children's sex-role self-concept and general self-concept, occupational stereotyping, frequency of TV watching, and a variety of parent-rated behaviors was also explored. While some developmental trends and sex differences occurred, sex-role self-concept was nonsignificantly related to these variables. Results are discussed in terms of the usefulness of the sex-role self-concept, particularly androgyny, as a developmental construct.The authors would like to thank the children and parents of St. Helen's Grammar School for their cooperation, and Karen Hyde, Jeff Wilbert, and Jill Tschopp for their help in data collection and analysis.     

单亲家长性别角色类型与子女社会适应的关系——性别角色教养态度的中介作用

在苏州市妇联及社区、街道工作人员的帮助下,采用判断取样,在苏州地区选取458户单亲家庭的父母子女,考察了单亲家长性别角色类型、性别角色教养态度与子女社会适应间的关系,并检验单亲家长性别角色教养态度在其性别角色类型与子女社会适应间的中介效应。结果表明:(1)单亲家长的性别角色类型多为双性化,性别角色教养态度处中上水平,单亲子女的社会适应处中上水平;不同背景变量的单亲子女其社会适应存在差异,单亲家长的户口与性别角色类型在子女社会适应上存在交互作用;(2)未分化及女性化类型与社会适应之间存在显著负相关,且未分化类型与性别角色教养态度存在显著负相关,单亲家长性别角色教养态度在其性别角色类型与子女社会适应两者关系中存在部分中介效应。     

Beyond Sowing and Growing: The Relationship of Sex Typing To Socialization,Family Plans,and Future Orientation1

The speculation, appearing frequently in the birth-planning and population literature, that family-size desires are associated with sex-role norms, was empirically investigated with the Bem (1974) Sex Role Inventory. Forty college students in a 2 (sex-typed vs. androgynous) × 2 (male or female) design responded to a demographic and future-plans inventory. Results indicated that androgynous females, as compared with sex-typed females, (a) moved frequently during childhood (p < .02); (b) were raised in larger communities (p < .02); (c) had fathers (p < .03) and mothers (p < .003) of higher occupational status; (d) tended toward higher educational aspiration (p < .09); (e) desired fewer children (p < .05); and (f) placed more importance on competence at work (p < .004). Male responses were not generally related to the sex-typing variable. Results were discussed in terms of implications of sex-role socialization for the problem of overpopulation.     

Sex-role identity,sex of other,and affective relationship as determinants of interpersonal conflict-management styles

Previous research in sex-role identity has explored behavioral differences in a variety of contexts. Only recently, however, have differences in interaction style been investigated. The study reported here was designed to assess behavioral differences in one important type of interaction: interpersonal conflict. Of 143 college students responding to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), a final sample of 57 subjects provided questionnaire data on five conflict-management modes in hypothetical conflicts with others who varied on factors of sex and affective relationship with respondent. Results of the MANOVA analysis suggested that feminine persons disapprove of competition more than persons of masculine and androgynous sex-role identification. The results further suggested that masculine persons may differentiate less between liked and disliked others in their competitive behavior than do feminine and androgynous persons. Finally, results suggested that conflicts with liked, as opposed to disliked, others are managed with less competition and more accommodation, collaboration, and compromise for all sex-role identity groups.     

The relations between sex-typed play and preschoolers' social behavior

For decades toy choice has been a very popular measure of children's sex-role adoption. In the present study, the relations between choice of masculine, neutral, or feminine toys and other social behaviors (sex typed and non-sex typed) were examined. The social behaviors (socializing, requesting assistance, prosocial behaviors, aggressive/defensive behaviors) and toy choices of 33 preschool children were observed in their classrooms. Only two behaviors were found to be sex typed (socializing with peers and spontaneous prosocial behavior), and both of these behaviors were related to toy choice. Toy choice was also related to helping. Among boys, masculine toy choice was associated with requesting assistance from teachers. When toy choice was classified as masculine, androgynous, and feminine, only sociability toward peers was related to toy choice. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the continued use of toy choice as a measure of sex-role adoption.The authors wish to express their gratitude to Rene Dodez for her assistance in data analysis and to the children and teachers at the Child Study Laboratory. We also appreciate the contributions of Drs. Laurie Chassin, Jerry Harris, Susan Somerville, Sharlene Wolchik, and Antonette Zeiss. This research was completed by the first author in partial fulfillment of the masters of arts degree at Arizona State University.     

Sex-role orientation of college students and their same-sex parents

The study examined similarities and differences between sex-role orientations of college students and their same-sex parents. College undergraduates filled out the Bem Sex-role Inventory twice: once to describe themselves and the second time to describe their same-sex parents. The inventory was also used to obtain parental self-reports. Compared to their perceptions of their same-sex parents, male students described themselves as more feminine and female students described themselves as more masculine. Also, male students described their fathers as less feminine and female students described their mothers as both less masculine and less feminine than the parents described themselves. Students' femininity scores correlated significantly with the parental femininity scores both actual and perceived, however, no consistent relationship was found for the masculinity scores. Androgynous students and students with the reversed sex-role orientation perceived their parents as androgynous and reversed, respectively.     

Parental antecedents of sex-role orientation in college men and women

Parental modeling and reinforcement antecedents of masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated sex-role orientation were tested for 228 college men and women using self and parent versions of the Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Parent Behavior Form. Parent scale differences indicated that psychological androgyny is associated with high levels of masculinity and femininity in both parents, with high levels of warmth and involvement, particularly with the same-sex parent, and, in females, with maternal cognitive/achievement encouragement. Sex typing occurred where both parents modeled traditional sex-role attributes and, for females, with extreme closeness with father in the absence of maternal cognitive/intellectual encouragement. An undifferentiated sex-role orientation was associated with low emotional and cognitive involvement with father in males and with an undifferentiated but emotionally involved mother in females. Finally, cross-sex typing in both sexes was associated with parental rejection, low feminity in both parents, and an absence of warmth or cognitive encouragement from either parent. These findings confirm and expand those of an earlier study for androgynous subjects, but differ markedly for cross-sex-typed subjects.     

Sex-role typing as related to acceptance of self, acceptance of others, and discriminatory attitudes toward women

This study examines four hypotheses relating sex-role typing to self-acceptance, acceptance of others, and sexist attitudes toward women. University students completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, the Berger Self-Acceptance Scale, and the Macho Scale. Findings showed more self-acceptance than acceptance of others among masculine-typed subjects and more acceptance of others than self-acceptance among feminine-typed subjects. Feminine-typed males and masculine-type females showed least self-acceptance among the six groups, while androgynous subjects showed highest self-acceptance. Masculine-typed males were least accepting of others and scored highest in discriminatory attitudes toward women. Male subjects showed greater variability than did female subjects on all scales, and Bem's measure of sex-role typing proved a more efficient moderator of scores of males than of those of females. Additional personality and behavioral research with sex-role typing variables is proposed.     

Opposite-sex interpersonal attraction as a function of the sex roles of the perceiver and the perceived

Androgynous, sex-typed, and undifferentiated high school males and females were asked to rate opposite-sex androgynous, sex-typed, and undifferentiated stimulus persons on both platonic and romantic liking measures. The sex-role attributes of the perceiver did not importantly mediate preferences. However, the sex-role personality characteristics of the stimulus person had significant consequences for attraction. Androgynous stimulus persons were found to be the most attractive on both platonic and romantic measures of liking. Females especially preferred androgynous males, whereas males tended to prefer androgynous females for friendship and feminine females for romance. Undifferentiated stimulus persons were consistently the least popular. Discussion of the possible dynamics underlying the obtained pattern of results is offered.The authors would like to thank Mary Harackiewicz, Bella DePaulo, Shelley Taylor, and especially John Kihlstrom for their help with this research.     

Sex-role and opposite-sex interpersonal attraction

Androgynous, traditional, and undifferentiated male and female subjects indicated their attraction to three opposite-sex strangers who were described as having an androgynous, traditional, and undifferentiated sex-role. Subjects' ability to describe the sex-roles of the strangers was also measured. Androgynous strangers were most preferred, undifferentiated strangers least preferred. The least preferred undifferentiated strangers' sex-role was most accurately described. Subjects were least successful in describing the androgynous sex-role.     

Sex-role similarities between adults and their parents

Sex-role is a product of interpersonal and intrapersonal cognitive functioning. As a result, parents play an important role in the development of their children's sex-role orientation. The aim of this research was to describe the relationship between the sex-role of adults and those of their parents as measured on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (Bem, 1974). Inventories were completed by 24 men, 41 women, and their parents. Results show the strongest relationship for gender-consonant sex-roles for mother-daughter and father-son dyads. Findings are discussed in terms of sex-role and modeling theories.     

The relationship of sex-role orientation to self-perceived health status in middle-aged males

The purpose of this study was to determine how sex-role orientation was related to self-perceived health status among a group of middle-aged males. A nonprobability sample of 237 male volunteers between the ages of 40 and 59, of whom 88.7% were engaged in professional occupations, completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and two separate measures employed to assess self-perceived health status. As predicted, the results indicated that on both measures of self-perceived health status, the middle-aged men with a traditional male sex-role orientation or those in the masculine classification reported lower self-perceived levels of health than did males considered to be androgynous. In this sample of professional middle-aged males, an androgynous sex-role orientation was, therefore, associated with higher levels of self-perceived health than was a traditional male sex-role orientation. Finally, an unhypothesized finding was that the men in the undifferentiated category also evidenced lower levels of self-perceived health than males who were androgynous.This research was part of a doctoral dissertation submitted to the University of Maryland, College Park.     

Sex differences in childhood socialization patterns in African societies

Data on sex-role socialization patterns of 29 African and 79 non-African societies were analyzed to test a set of hypotheses about the extent of sex-typing displayed in the child-training processes of African societies. Findings suggest that clear sex differences in socialization emphases and behavioral outcomes exist within African societies; moreover, such differentials resemble those reported among societies from other world cultural regions. In addition, three interesting secondary findings suggest that (1) males experience greater overall levels of socialization anxiety than females; (2) greater overall normative pressure is exerted on males than females in the course of child training; (3) in the aggregate, male children tend to be more compliant in reproducing ideal role-related behavior patterns than female children.     

Influence of gender constancy and social power on sex-linked modeling

Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-developmental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power for boys.     

Sex-role orientation and attachment styles of sex offenders

Given the increase of individuals who have a history of sexual offenses, there has been an increase in research on the etiology of sex-offending behavior. The present purpose was to evaluate the relationship between sex-role orientation and attachment styles of males who were sex offenders. Analysis yielded statistically significant differences between comparison (n = 22) and clinical groups (n = 21) in gender roles, with little sign of the androgynous gender type for sex offenders. The offender group showed significantly lower frequency of androgyny scores and significantly higher scores on feminine and undifferentiated orientations, supporting the theoretical view of sex offenders as being "cross-sex-typed." In addition, the sex offender group had a significantly higher mean score on anxious-avoidant relationship attachment. Based on the present findings, there appears to be a need to help sex offenders explore how their gender roles may relate to their sex-offending behavior and assist sex offenders in the development of adaptive relationships with reduced anxiety and ambivalence.