关于反事实思维的研究

反事实思维是个体对过去事件加以心理否定并构建出一种假设可能的思维活动。该文讨论了反事实思维的分类、反事实思维产生过程的两阶段模型及其影响因素以及反事实思维对于个体生活的作用。     

结果的接近性和不同等级分界线对反事实思维的影响

反事实思维是个体对不真实的条件或可能性进行替换的一种思维过程.它是在心理上对已经发生的事件进行否定,然后表征原本可能发生但现实并未发生的心理活动.本文以170名大学生为被试,采用情境模拟技术,研究结果的接近性和不同等级的分界线对反事实思维及满意度的影响.实验一表明,结果接近分界点较结果远离分界点时,被试产生的下行反事实思维要多.当结果的效价为成功时,更易引发反事实思维.实验二发现上行反事实思维随成功的等级变化而呈整体上升趋势,个体对结果的满意度随成绩的增加而上升.     

反事实思维与后悔的关系：调节模式的调节作用

已有研究表明反事实思维越多则后悔越强烈。本研究试图通过两项实验分别探讨特质性、情境性调节模式是否影响反事实思维与后悔之间的关系。结果表明：特质性调节模式及情境性调节模式均对反事实思维与后悔之间的关系具有调节作用,具体来说,针对情境性调节模式而言,运动模式下加法式思维越多则后悔越轻微,评估模式下加法式思维越多则后悔越强烈;针对特质性调节模式而言,运动模式下加法式思维越多则后悔越轻微。     

儿童反事实思维的研究述评

反事实思维一直以来是成人认知研究中备受关注的课题,近年来有关儿童反事实思维的发展也逐步引起研究者的兴趣。本研究论述了儿童反事实思维产生的早期信号、年龄变化、出现错误的原因以及与心理理论、因果推理、假装等心理状态之间的关系,最后在评述前人研究的基础上提出未来的研究方向。     

调节模式对怀旧的影响：反事实思维和后悔的链式中介作用

为探讨调节模式和怀旧的关系,以及反事实思维和后悔在两者之间的中介作用,采用问卷法对398名大学生进行调查。结果发现：(1)调节模式对怀旧有负向预测作用;(2)反事实思维和后悔分别在调节模式与怀旧的关系中发挥单独的中介作用;(3)反事实思维和后悔在调节模式和怀旧的关系中发挥完全的链式中介作用。概言之,调节模式能通过反事实思维的单独中介、后悔的单独中介及反事实思维和后悔的链式中介作用间接影响怀旧。这些结果对于进一步理解不同调节模式者在怀旧方面的偏好及其内部影响机制具有一定的启示意义。     

反事实思维对行人交通安全行为意向的影响

反事实思维是对过去发生事情进行否定而产生的假设性思维表征,对行为改变和绩效改善有显著影响。因此,作为一种重要的认知策略,反事实思维常常被用于行为干预的研究。本研究采用单因素(反事实启动/经验启动)被试间实验设计,以4种常见的行人不安全行为为实验材料,运用顺序启动范式的语义启动分别激活自变量的两个水平,将遵守交通规则行为意向的评分和反应时双变量作为因变量指标,探索反事实思维对行人安全行为的促进作用。结果表明:与基线水平和经验启动相比,反事实启动诱导产生的行人交通安全行为意向更加积极,并且产生的自动化水平更高。文章最后讨论了研究的理论意义和对安全管理实践的启发。     

建构水平对反事实思维方向的影响

研究采用因果推断和价值/可行性启动任务,考察了建构水平对反事实思维方向的影响。实验1要求被试在完成一个原因推断(高水平建构)或结果推断(低水平建构)任务后,针对一组负性生活事件执行上行或下行反事实思维任务;实验2要求被试在完成一个价值启动(高水平建构)或可行性启动(低水平建构)任务后,重复了反事实思维任务。实验结果发现:(1)原因推断可促进被试的上行反事实思维,而结果推断可促进被试的下行反事实思维;(2)价值启动可促进被试的上行反事实思维,而可行性启动可促进被试的下行反事实思维。因此,高水平建构可促进个体的上行反事实思维,而低水平建构可促进被试的下行反事实思维。     

不同调控方式个体反事实思维上的差异：来自ERP的证据

利用事件相关电位技术(ERP), 采用简单赌博任务范式, 考察具有“评估倾向”和“行动倾向”的两类个体在反事实思维上的差异及其神经电生理证据。行为结果表明：评估倾向的个体比行动倾向的个体产生更强的反事实思维, 两者差异极其显著; 脑电结果表明：(1)在反映结果快速评价的FRN上, 组别主效应显著, 评估倾向的个体所产生的FRN波幅显著大于行动倾向的个体, (2)在P300上, 组别主效应显著, 评估倾向的个体所产生的P300波幅显著大于行动倾向的个体。简而言之, 两种不同调控方式的个体在反事实思维强度上存在着显著差异, 这在FRN和P300上得到了反映, 评估倾向的个体所产生的反事实思维更强, 情绪体验也更加强烈。不同调控方式的个体, 其反事实思维具有不同的特点和不同的大脑活动。     

幼儿反事实推理的错误源分析

本研究选取57名3~5岁幼儿,考察了在两种选择和三种选择的反事实推理任务中儿童的表现以及是否出现现实错误。结果如下:无论在两种还是三种选择的反事实任务中,3岁组儿童的得分显著低于4岁和5岁组儿童,而4岁和5岁组儿童之间不存在显著差异;幼儿在反事实推理中的确会出现现实错误,但除此之外,幼儿在三种选择任务中也会选择现实和正确答案之外的第三个选项。由此可见,年幼儿童可能在抑制现实和建构反事实替代情境方面都存在困难,这尚需我们进一步探究。     

动机冲突下2~4岁幼儿反事实思维理解的发展

采用故事法, 考察在3种动机冲突下幼儿反事实思维理解的发展。结果表明：(1) 2岁幼儿的加法、减法反事实思维得分显著高于替代反事实思维。(2)在加法反事实任务中, 2岁幼儿显著低于4岁幼儿;在减法反事实任务中, 3个年龄组得分有显著性差异。(3)在趋避冲突下, 加法与减法反事实得分都显著高于替代反事实。(4)在结果反事实理解任务中, 随着年龄增长, 幼儿结果反事实思维理解能力有显著提高。     

“值”在中国人的假设思维中的角色

先前的研究表明, 东西方在假设思维上不存在差异, 或者只是存在于特殊范围内(domain-specific)。本文在中国人的“值”的概念基础上界定一个存在于东西方的假设思维上的新差异。实验1显示了在假设思维概念里, 中国人的“值”是由决策理由的大小和后果的严重程度大小决定的, 同时“值”被证实是中国人假设思维的中介变量。实验2比较了中、法两国被试的假设思维, 结果再次证明了中国被试的假设思维是由“值”概念决定, 相比而言法国被试是由“成本－收益”概念决定的。     

大学生心理控制源与内疚感和羞耻感对反事实思维的影响

研究以128名大学生为研究对象,采用2 (心理控制源: 外控型、内控型)×2 (自我道德感: 内疚感、羞耻感) 两因素被试间实验设计,考察了外控和内控大学生在内疚感和羞耻感两种不同的自我道德情感下反事实思维内容的差异。结果表明:(1) 心理控制源对大学生反事实思维不同内容的诱发具有重要的影响:外控者更倾向于产生行为和情境导向的反事实思维,而内控者更倾向于产生自我导向的反事实思维。内疚感和羞耻感对大学生反事实思维内容的产生没有直接的影响;(2) 反事实思维内容的产生受到了心理控制源与内疚感和羞耻感两种自我道德情感的交互影响:外控者在羞耻感的启动条件下比在内疚感的启动条件下表现出了更多的行为和情境导向的反事实思维,而内控者在内疚感的启动条件下比在羞耻感的条件下表现出了更多的自我导向的反事实思维。研究结果有助于解释以中西方不同被试而得出的内疚感和羞耻感与反事实思维关系的矛盾结论。     

3～5岁幼儿反事实思维的发展研究

该研究采用结果和前提反事实推理任务,选取58名3-5岁幼儿为被试,考察了其反事实思维能力的发展。结果表明:1.3岁儿童在结果反事实推理中的得分显著低于4岁和5岁儿童,而4岁和5岁儿童的得分并不存在显著差异;2.幼儿的前提反事实推理因结构和方向不同而表现出不同的年龄变化趋势;3.幼儿产生的上行和下行反事实论断之间不存在显著差异。如成人一样,幼儿较少产生减法反事实。     

Hazards mean luck: Counterfactual thinking in reports of dangerous situations and careless behavior

It has been shown (Teigen, 1995) that experiences of "luck" in daily life are dependent upon the existence a worse and close hypothetical (counterfactual) outcome, rather than upon a positive evaluation of what actually happened. The present investigation focuses on the inverse relationship, namely whether a situation with a negative outcome close at hand will be perceived as lucky. To test this hypothesis, students were asked to describe dangerous situations (Experiment 1) and examples of careless behavior (Experiment 3) from their own lives, which subsequently were rated by the actors and by peer groups for good and bad luck, attractiveness, and for closeness and attractiveness of the counterfactual outcome. Dangerous situations and episodes involving careless behavior were generally regarded as more lucky than unlucky. Furthermore, degree of good luck was positively correlated with degree of dangerousness and with degree of carelessness. Luck was related to closeness, aversiveness, and (in Experiment 2) to estimated probability of the counterfactual outcome. It is concluded that luck is primarily determined by negative outcomes that did not happen, and thus a frequent by-product of risk taking and risk exposure.     

On the Counterfactual Nature of Gambling Near‐misses: An Experimental Study

Research on gambling near‐misses has shown that objectively equivalent outcomes can yield divergent emotional and motivational responses. The subjective processing of gambling outcomes is affected substantially by close but non‐obtained outcomes (i.e. counterfactuals). In the current paper, we investigate how different types of near‐misses influence self‐perceived luck and subsequent betting behavior in a wheel‐of‐fortune task. We investigate the counterfactual mechanism of these effects by testing the relationship with a second task measuring regret/relief processing. Across two experiments (Experiment 1, n = 51; Experiment 2, n = 104), we demonstrate that near‐wins (neutral outcomes that are close to a jackpot) decreased self‐perceived luck, whereas near‐losses (neutral outcomes that are close to a major penalty) increased luck ratings. The effects of near‐misses varied by near‐miss position (i.e. whether the spinner stopped just short of, or passed through, the counterfactual outcome), consistent with established distinctions between upward versus downward, and additive versus subtractive, counterfactual thinking. In Experiment 1, individuals who showed stronger counterfactual processing on the regret/relief task were more responsive to near‐wins and near‐losses on the wheel‐of‐fortune task. The effect of near‐miss position was attenuated when the anticipatory phase (i.e. the spin and deceleration) was removed in Experiment 2. Further differences were observed within the objective gains and losses, between “clear” and “narrow” outcomes. Taken together, these results help substantiate the counterfactual mechanism of near‐misses. © 2017 The Authors Journal of Behavioral Decision Making Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

第三方惩罚与社会规范激活——社会责任感与情绪的作用

社会规范需要被激活才能显著影响个体行为,第三方惩罚（TP）正是这样一个激活的过程。本研究将TP引入独裁者博弈（DG）,社会规范被激活的被试参与了TP与DG,未激活的被试只参与了DG。结果表明,前者在TP之后显著提升了DG中的亲社会行为。进一步的分析发现,在社会规范激活过程中,社会责任感越高的个体被激活的程度越高,对违背社会规范的行为产生的愤怒情绪也越高,从而产生了更高水平的亲社会行为。在排除了实验中其他因素和相关理论的解释后,这一基本的实验结果表明社会规范激活受到社会责任感的影响并伴随着特定情绪的激发。     

Perspective tracking in progress: Do not disturb

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that indirect false-belief tests allow participants to track a protagonist’s perspective uninterruptedly, whereas direct false-belief tests disrupt the process of perspective tracking in various ways. For this purpose, adults’ performance was compared on indirect and direct false-belief tests by means of continuous eye-tracking. Experiment 1 confirmed that the false-belief question used in direct tests disrupts perspective tracking relative to what is observed in an indirect test. Experiment 2 confirmed that perspective tracking is a continuous process that can be easily disrupted in adults by a subtle visual manipulation in both indirect and direct tests. These results call for a closer analysis of the demands of the false-belief tasks that have been used in developmental research.     

Counterfactual thinking and false belief: the role of executive function

The purpose of the current study was to examine further the relationship between counterfactual thinking and false belief (FB) as examined by Guajardo and Turley-Ames (Cognitive Development, 19 (2004) 53-80). More specifically, the current research examined the importance of working memory and inhibitory control in understanding the relationship between counterfactual thinking and FB. Participants were 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds (N = 76). Counterfactual thinking statements generated accounted for significant variance in FB performance beyond age and language. Working memory and inhibitory control each partially mediated the relationship between counterfactual thinking and FB performance. The maturation of executive functioning skills is important in children’s developing understanding of counterfactual reasoning and FB.