The Experimental Measurement of a Social Hierarchy in Gallus Domesticus: VI. Preliminary Identification of Social Law

Bousfield and Sedgewick showed that the cumulative number of associations produced to a category as a function of time could be described by an exponential function having the parameters m (rate of association) and C (total number of associates produced). In two experiments using male and female college students (N = 16 and N = 14, respectively), the present study investigated the hypothesis suggested by previous research, that the values of m and C for different categories are negatively correlated. S s produced examples of different categories in four-minute periods per category on mimeographed sheets. The predicted negative correlation across categories was found (Experiment I, r = .54, p < .05, one-tailed test; Experiment 2, r = .75, p < .01). Categories with a low m value had a high C value and vice versa. The effect can be explained by a model which assumes exemplars are stored more or less densely in semantic memory.     

The relative energy of fcc and hcp foams

The energies of face-centred cubic (fcc) and hexagonal close-packed (hcp) monodisperse foams, associated with their total surface area, are equal in the wet and dry limits, in the usual model. We prove that for all intermediate values of liquid fraction, hcp has lower energy. Energy considerations are thus not sufficient to explain the observed preference for crystallization into fcc over hcp in experiments using monodisperse bubbles.     

Effect of mechanical stress on the absorption band tail of cubic boron nitride thin films synthesized by inductively coupled radio-frequency plasma chemical vapour deposition

Thin films of cubic boron nitride were deposited on silica and Si substrates by inductively coupled radio-frequency plasma chemical vapour deposition (IPCVD) technique using a B₂H₆?+?N₂?+?Ar gas mixture. Cubic phase formation was confirmed by glancing-angle X-ray diffraction studies, which showed reflections up to (311). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra also indicated the predominantly cubic nature of the deposited films. The optical properties of the films were studied in the wavelength range 200–1000?nm. Both direct and indirect transitions were found to be present. Mechanical stress in the grain-boundary region of the films seems to contribute significantly to the optical absorption below the band gap. The intercrystalline barrier height (E _b) and the trap state density (Q _t ) were obtained from an analysis of the effects of grain boundaries on the optical properties of the samples.     

Internalized equality and protest against injustice: The role of disadvantaged group members’ self-respect in collective action tendencies

Recent research shows that self-respect (defined as seeing yourself as a person with equal rights) predicts assertive but not aggressive responses to injustice in interpersonal contexts. The present research focuses on the antecedents of self-respect and its consequences for collective action tendencies among members of disadvantaged groups. Across three studies (N = 227, N = 454, N = 131) using different contexts and samples (discrimination of Muslims in Germany; women regarding gender inequality), experiences with equality-based respect (defined as being treated as someone of equal worth) predicted self-respect. Moreover, across all three studies, self-respect predicted intentions for cooperative or normative but not support for hostile or non-normative protest. The results demonstrate the potential of self-respect for facilitating collective action in the face of injustice while still enabling positive intergroup relations.     

Virtual Modality

Model-theoretic 1-types overa given first-order theory T may be construed as natural metalogical miniatures of G. W. Leibniz' ``complete individual notions', ``substances' or ``substantial forms'. This analogy prompts this essay's modal semantics for an essentiallyundecidable first-order theory T, in which one quantifies over such ``substances' in a boolean universe V(C), where C is the completion of the Lindenbaum-algebra of T.More precisely, one can define recursively a set-theoretic translate of formulae _N of formulae of a normal modal theory T_m based on T, such that the counterpart `<sub>i</sub>' of a the modal variable `x_i' of L(T_m) in this translation-scheme ranges over elements of V(C) that are 1-types of T with value 1 (sometimes called `definite' C-valued 1-types of T).The article's basic completeness-result (2.13) then establishes that varphi; is a theorem of T<sub>m</sub> iff [[ <sub>N</sub> () is aconsequenceof <sub>N</sub> (T<sub>m</sub>) for each extension N of T which is a subtheory of the canonical generic theory (ultrafilter) u]] = 1 – or equivalently, that T<sub>m</sub> is consistent iff[[there is anextension N of T such that N is a subtheory of the canonical generic theory u, and <sub>N</sub>() for all in T<sub>m</sub>]] > 0.The proof of thiscompleteness-result also shows that an N which provides a countermodel for a modally unprovable – or equivalently, a closed set in the Stone space St(T) in the sense of V(C) – is intertranslatable with an `accessibility'-relation of a closely related Kripke-semantics whose `worlds' are generic extensions of an initial universe V via C.This interrelation providesa fairly precise rationale for the semantics' recourse to C-valued structures, and exhibits a sense in which the boolean-valued context is sharp.     

Conditional probability judgments: Effects of imagining vs experiencing the conditioning event

Applications of Bayesian conditionalization often involve two temporal aspects: a probability judgment is based on knowledge at a point in time and is revised over time in light of added information. Let t, t′, and t″ designate three chronological points in time. E designates a target event which occurs or not at t″, and C designates a conditioning event which occurs or not at t′. Suppose that an individual judges P(EC) at t. If C occurs, Bayesian conditionalization requires that a judgment of P(E) at t′ is equal to the earlier judgment of P(EC). However, inconsistencies may result because a judgment of P(EC) at t is based on imagining C, while a judgment of P(E) at t′ is based on experiencing C. This study examines two sources of such inconsistencies. First, C normally is an abstraction of what might happen between t and t′. What actually happens may differ, such that an individual observes extraconditional information which affects a judgment of P(E) at t′. Second, experiencing C may change an individual's affective state, leading to greater optimism or pessimism about the occurrence of E. We report an experiment which documents both effects.     

The Perception of Mechanical Vibration: III. The Frequency Function

Three studies of male and female undergraduates examined the effects of incidental orienting tasks on the free recall of concrete nouns. In Experiments 1 (between-Ss design N = 53) and 2 (within-Ss design N = 54) semantic orienting tasks resulted in recall that was equal to or higher than recall following intentional learning. Nonsemantic orienting tasks produced poorest recall. In Experiment 3 (N = 59), Ss performed a word recognition task between two free-recall trials. The target and distractor words were either acoustically, orthographically, or semantically related or were unrelated to each other. On the second free-recall trial, recall was highest for target words that had been paired with semantically related distractors. The results of the three experiments add to the growing support for a levels-of-processing model of memory.     

Facial reactions to violent and comedy films: Association with callous–unemotional traits and impulsive aggression

The current study adds to prior research by investigating specific (happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust, anger and fear) and general (corrugator and zygomatic muscle activity) facial reactions to violent and comedy films among individuals with varying levels of callous–unemotional (CU) traits and impulsive aggression (IA). Participants at differential risk of CU traits and IA were selected from a sample of 1225 young adults. In Experiment 1, participants (N?=?82) facial expressions were recorded while they watched violent and comedy films. Video footage of participants' facial expressions was analysed using FaceReader, a facial coding software that classifies facial reactions. Findings suggested that individuals with elevated CU traits showed reduced facial reactions of sadness and disgust to violent films, indicating low empathic concern in response to victims' distress. In contrast, impulsive aggressors produced specifically more angry facial expressions when viewing violent and comedy films. In Experiment 2 (N?=?86), facial reactions were measured by monitoring facial electromyography activity. FaceReader findings were verified by the reduced facial electromyography at the corrugator, but not the zygomatic, muscle in response to violent films shown by individuals high in CU traits. Additional analysis suggested that sympathy to victims explained the association between CU traits and reduced facial reactions to violent films.     

On Some Categories of Involutive Centered Residuated Lattices

Motivated by an old construction due to J. Kalman that relates distributive lattices and centered Kleene algebras we define the functor K ^• relating integral residuated lattices with 0 (IRL₀) with certain involutive residuated lattices. Our work is also based on the results obtained by Cignoli about an adjunction between Heyting and Nelson algebras, which is an enrichment of the basic adjunction between lattices and Kleene algebras. The lifting of the functor to the category of residuated lattices leads us to study other adjunctions and equivalences. For example, we treat the functor C whose domain is cuRL, the category of involutive residuated lattices M whose unit is fixed by the involution and has a Boolean complement c (the underlying set of C M is the set of elements greater or equal than c). If we restrict to the full subcategory NRL of cuRL of those objects that have a nilpotent c, then C is an equivalence. In fact, C M is isomorphic to C _e M, and C _e is adjoint to , where assigns to an object A of IRL₀ the product A × A ⁰ which is an object of NRL.     

Implementing an Autonomy-Supportive Intervention to Develop Mental Toughness in Adolescent Rowers

It was hypothesized that autonomy-supportive coaching behaviors, psychological needs satisfaction, and mental toughness would increase, and controlling coaching behaviors and psychological needs thwarting would decrease following a coach-directed autonomy-supportive intervention. Data related to these hypotheses were collected with coaches (N = 18) and adolescent rowers (N = 61) prior to and following an 8-week intervention, and 8 weeks following the intervention. Coaches were interviewed following data collection about their involvement in the intervention. Results did not support the hypotheses. Qualitative analyses revealed that autonomy-supportive behaviors might not have been adopted due to contextual pressures on the coaches.     

Thermal behaviour of poly(methyl methacrylate)/fullerene composite films

ABSTRACT

Poly(methyl methacrylate) films and poly(methyl methacrylate)/fullerene composite films were fabricated by casting from toluene solutions. The mass fraction of fullerene (C₆₀) was varied from 0.05–3?wt. %. The effect of the fullerene (C₆₀) content on the thermal degradation parameters of the composite films was evaluated by thermogravimetric (TG) analysis. It was found that the incorporation of C₆₀ improved the thermal stability of the polymers. The films eventually decomposed in three stages. Incorporation of fullerene caused a change in the distribution of mass loss over the stages of degradation in comparison with the pristine polymer. Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), the phase transitions from the glassy state to the elastic one was studied for the examined polymeric materials. New data relating to the effect of C₆₀ on the glass transition temperature of composites with low weight fractions of filler were obtained. Specifically, for films containing up to 0.1 wt. % of C₆₀, a single glass transition temperature was found, whereas for composites with a higher concentration of filler, two glass transition temperatures were recorded.     

The influence of decision time on sensitivity for consequences,moral norms,and preferences for inaction: Time,moral judgments,and the CNI model

It is often discussed that moral judgments are either consistent with the principle of utilitarianism or with the principle of deontology. Utilitarianism is a moral principle stating that the right act is the one that produces the best overall outcome. Deontology represents an ethical position indicating that the morality of an action depends on the intrinsic nature of the action regardless of the consequences. Criticism on the structure of moral dilemmas includes the problem that these dilemmas confound norms and consequences. Recently, a multinomial model (the CNI model) was developed to disentangle and measure sensitivity to consequences (C), sensitivity to moral norms (N), and general preference for inaction versus action (I), respectively. In Experiment 1, we examined the influence of time pressure on moral judgments using the CNI model. We found that time pressure influenced moral dilemma judgments by decreasing participants' sensitivity for consequences. There were no significant effects of time pressure on participants' sensitivity to norms and general preference for inaction. Furthermore, in Experiment 2, we examined the link of reaction times to moral judgments more closely by fitting a hierarchical Bayesian version of the CNI model. Longer reaction times lead to an increase in parameter N, and there was no influence of reaction times on parameter C or I.     

A syntactical approach to modality

Conclusion The systems T _N and T _M show that necessity can be consistently construed as a predicate of syntactical objects, if the expressive/deductive power of the system is deliberately engineered to reflect the power of the original object language operator. The system T _N relies on salient limitations on the expressive power of the language L _N through the construction of a quotational hierarchy, while the system T _Mrelies on limiting the scope of the modal axioms schemas to the sublanguage L _infM ⁺, which corresponds exactly with the restrictive hierarchy of L _N. The fact that L _infM ⁺ is identical to the image of the metalinguistic mapping C ⁺ from the normal operator system into L _M reveals that iterated operator modality is implicitly hierarchical, and that inconsistency is produced by applying the principles of the modal logic to formulas which have no natural analogues in the operator development. Thus the contradiction discovered by Montague can be diagnosed as the result of instantiating the axiom schemas with modally ungrounded formulas, and thereby adding radically new modal axioms to the predicate system.The predicate treatment of necessity differs significantly from that of the operator in that the cumulative models for the predicate system are strictly first-order. Possible worlds are not used as model-theoretic primitives, but rather alternate models are appealed to in order to specify the extension of N, which is semantically construed as a first-order predicate. In this manner, the intensional aspects of modality are built into the mode of specifying the particular set of objects which the denotation function assigns to N, rather than in the specification of the basic truth conditions for modal formulas. Intensional phenomena are thereby localised to the special requirements for determining the extension of a particular predicate, and this does not constitute a structural modification of the first-order models, but rather limits the relevant class of models to those which possess an appropriate denotation function.     

Dimensions of information processing: physiological reactions to motion pictures

Information processing is studied using physiological reactions to motion pictures as a major tool. In study I (N=44) physiological reactions are subjected to multivariate analysis revealing three major dimensions: familiarization, effort, and readiness (cf. Pribram and McGuinness, 1992). Each dimension contrasts controlled processing with automatic processing. In study II (N=72) and study III (N=96) the dimensions are tested. In those studies specific information is provided prior to film onset and the effects on the physiological reactions are studied. The results generally confirm the model. Study IV (N=44) is concerned with individual differences in information processing. Reactions to seven films are analysed with generalizability for each dimension separately. The results show that individual dimension scores are highly consistent across different situations. In the discussion it is argued that the three information processing dimensions identified here can be conceived as stable personality dispositions, underlying individual differences in learning and overt behaviour. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Restricted ranking

This paper is a study of certain aspects of restricted ranking, a method intended for use by a panel ofm judges evaluating the relative merits ofN subjects, candidates for scholarships, awards, etc. Each judge divides theN subjects intoR classes so thatn _i individuals receive a gradei (i = 1, 2, ...,R; Σn _i =N) where theR numbersn _i are close toN/R (n _i =N/R whenN is divisible byR) and are preassigned and the same for all judges. This method is superior in several respects to other likely alternatives. Under the null hypothesis that allnR =N subjects are of equal merit, four tests of significance are developed. The effectiveness of the method is investigated both theoretically by means of the asymptotic relative efficiency and more generally by simulation studies. When the numbersn _i are not restricted to values close to or equal toN/R but instead are given values conforming to a normally distributed pattern, the resulting method is known as theQ-sort, so designated by certain investigators in psychotherapy. The simulation studies reveal that restricted ranking is only slightly inferior to complete ranking and generally superior in the cases considered to theQ-sort, although there are likely to be other situations when the latter is superior. The authors are indebted to Dr. Clyde Kramer of Virginia Polytechnic Institute for bringing theQ-sort ranking technique of psychotherapy to their attention.     

Different Types of Religious/Spiritual Well-Being in Relation to Personality and Subjective Well-Being

In this study the authors attempt to present different types of Religious/Spiritual Well-Being (RSWB) and discuss their relation to personality and psychological well-being. The Multidimensional Inventory for Religious/Spiritual Well-Being 48 is employed for this study, which consists of 6 subscales. To find different types of RSWB, an agglomerative cluster analysis on these subscales was performed based on the responses obtained in a nonclinical adult sample (n = 463). A 4-cluster solution was accepted. The clusters were labeled as Religious/Spiritual High, Religiously Oriented, Existentially Oriented, and Religious/Spiritual Low, and were found to be substantially related to Sense of Coherence (n = 263) and Six Factors of Personality (n = 200) in two different subsamples. By presenting a first empirical model for a 4-field typology of RSWB, we hope to further contribute to the ongoing discussion on how to deal with religious/spiritual issues in personality research.     

Positive mental imagery and mental health amongst university students in Pakistan

Mental health problems amongst university students pose a major public health challenge, and this is particularly the case in Pakistan. Alongside broader societal and cultural pressures, cognitive factors likely also play a role in the development of and resilience to mental health problems and may provide a feasible target for interventions. The current study built on previous research in primarily European samples investigating the relationship between one cognitive factor, positive future-oriented mental imagery, and mental health, extending this to a sample of university students in Pakistan (N = 1838). In a cross-sectional design, higher vividness of positive future-oriented mental imagery was associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms and higher levels of positive mental health amongst participants completing questionnaire measures on paper (N = 1430) or online (N = 408). In the sample completing the measures on paper, these relationships remained statistically significant even when controlling for socio-demographic and mental health-related variables. The results provide a foundation for further investigating positive mental imagery as a potential mechanism of mental health and intervention target amongst university students in Pakistan.     

Repeated measurements analysis of variance when the correlations have a certain pattern

Consider a repeated measurements study in which a single observation is taken at each oft(t > 2) equally spaced time points for each ofn subjects. This paper uses a result of Box to find the appropriate multiplicative correction term for the degrees of freedom in the analysis of variance table for the case when there is equal variability per time point, and when the correlation between observationsu time units apart is equal to ^u . For large values oft, the multiplicative correction has a lower bound approximately equal to 2.5/(t – 1).Dr. Fleiss is also with the Biometrics Research Unit of the New York State Psychiatric Institute. This work was supported in part by grant DE 04068 from the National Institute of Dental Research.     

The effect of causal chain length on counterfactual conditional reasoning

We investigated German and Nichols' finding that 3‐year‐olds could answer counterfactual conditional questions about short causal chains of events, but not long. In four experiments (N =192), we compared 3‐ and 4‐year‐olds' performance on short and long causal chain questions, manipulating whether the child could draw on general knowledge to answer. We failed to replicate German and Nichols' result, finding instead that in two experiments (Experiments 1 and 3) there was no difference in performance on short and long causal chain questions and in two experiments (Experiments 2 and 4) children showed the opposite pattern: short causal chain questions were more difficult than long. These two unexpected patterns of results were replicated in a fifth study (N =97). Children with lower language ability found short causal chains more difficult than long. Performance by children with higher language ability was unaffected by the length of the causal chain they had to consider. We found no evidence that children showed precocious counterfactual thinking when asked about recent events in a causal chain and conclude that counterfactual thinking develops after 4 years of age.     

Using a Sharp Instrument to Parse Apart Strategy and Consistency: An Evaluation of PPT and Its Assumptions

Potential Performance Theory (PPT) is a general theory for parsing observed performance into the underlying strategy and the consistency with which it is used. Although empirical research has supported that PPT is useful, it is desirable to have more information about the bias and standard errors of PPT findings. It also is beneficial to know the effects of violations of PPT assumptions. The authors present computer simulations that evaluate bias and standard errors at varying levels of strategy, consistency, and number of trials per participant. The simulations show that, when the assumptions are true, there is very little bias and the standard errors are low when there are moderate or large numbers of trials per participant (e.g., N = 50 or N = 100). But when the independence assumption is violated, PPT provides biased findings, although the bias is quite small unless the violations are large.