词频对学习判断的影响

该研究通过自定步速的联结学习任务,考察在学习高频词对和低频词对时即时学习判断的绝对准确性,以及学习判断准确性与回忆成绩的相关。实验结果显示:(1)即时学习判断等级与回忆成绩存在显著差异,即时学习判断在预测回忆成绩时出现显著的高估;(2)词频对高估程度有显著影响,高频词对的高估程度大于低频词对;(3)不论是高频词对还是低频词对,学习判断准确性与回忆成绩都有高相关,验证了元记忆假设。     

记忆编码与特异性效应之间关系的ERP研究

通过事件相关电位（ERPs）探讨了在“学习–再认”模式条件下的记忆编码与特异性效应之间的关系。选择首要特异性特征为深、浅加工,次要特异性特征为高、低词频。研究结果表明,（1）行为数据支持了低频词的再认比高频词更精确;深加工的再认比浅加工更精确,并且深加工存在着显著的字频效应,浅加工没有显著的字频效应。（2）低频词比高频词有更大的ERP晚正成分（LPC）;在低频词条件下,存在着显著的相继记忆效应,随后再认正确的ERPs比随后再认不正确的ERPs更正。因此,加工方式和词频间接地影响着记忆编码的形成。     

任务类线索对学习难易度判断及其准确性影响的实验研究

摘要：通过两个实验考察任务类线索（词频、关联性、学习次数）对学习难易度判断及其准确性的影响。结果表明：（1）词频和关联性对学习难易度判断均有显著影响,高频词对、有关联词对的预测成绩显著高于低频词对和无关联词对的预测成绩;（2）高频词对和低频词对的预测成绩均出现高估,但低频词对的估计更准确;有无关联词对相比,无关联词对预测成绩偏差更大,有关联词对的难易度判断更准确;（3）词频高低只影响成绩的预测,不影响实际回忆成绩;关联性既影响对成绩的预测,也影响实际回忆成绩。（4）学习次数对难易度判断没有显著影响,但随学习次数增加,判断准确性降低,出现低估现象。结论：材料因素对学习难易度判断等级具有较稳定的影响;不同材料因素（词频、关联性）对难易度判断准确性的影响方式不同;学习次数对学习难易度判断没有显著影响;学习难易度判断中存在练习伴随低估效应。     

快速呈现条件下语境与词频对中文语词识别的影响

本实验结果发现,词频影响单词的识别,语境的作用随SOA 的长短而变化.当SOA 较短时相关语境对高低频词的识别均有显著的促进作用,无关语境对高低频词的识别没有显著的抑制性影响。随着SOA 的延长相关语境对高频词的促进作用仍然显著,但无关语境对高频词的识别没有抑制作用,只对低频词有抑制性影响。文章认为语境词Lcgogen 的激活扩散方式和对目标词的加工方式之间的相互作用共同决定了本实验的词汇判断结果。     

词边界信息和词频在汉语阅读中的作用

利用Eyelink2000眼动仪,记录27名本科生阅读时的眼动轨迹。句子中插入四种空格(正常无空格、词间空格、字间空格和非词空格)标记词边界信息,并操纵目标词的词频,以考察词边界信息和词频在汉语阅读中的作用。结果表明:(1)插入非词空格对低频词的干扰作用大于高频词,插入字间空格能促进低频词的加工;(2)被试对低频词的加工难度均大于高频词;(3)汉语阅读的基本加工单位为词而不是汉字。     

汉语口语词汇识别中声调、语境的作用:来自眼动研究的证据

为探讨汉语口语词汇识别过程的影响因素,本研究采用眼动方法,结合视觉-情境范式,通过2个实验考察了不同语境条件下声调对汉语双字词听觉词汇识别的作用。结果发现:(1)在不同语境中,三种竞争词各自的总注视时间显著长于无关控制词;(2)在低限制性语境中,高频词的凝视时间显著短于低频词;(3)在低限制性语境中出现词频效应。该结果表明:音段信息、声调都能够影响口语词汇识别过程,实验结果支持TRACE模型。     

阅读水平和阅读任务对英语词频效应的影响:来自非熟练汉-英双语者的眼动证据

利用眼动仪记录非熟练汉-英双语者阅读包含高频词或低频词的英语句子时的眼动轨迹,探讨不同阅读水平和不同阅读任务对词频效应的影响。采用2(阅读水平:高、低)×2(阅读任务:自然阅读、校对阅读)×2(目标词词频:高、低)混合实验设计。结果发现:(1)高水平组和低水平组都表现出显著的词频效应和阅读任务差异,即低水平组的词频效应更为明显,而高水平组的阅读任务差异更为明显;(2)不同阅读任务均表现出显著的词频效应,但校对阅读的词频效应更为明显。这表明,阅读水平和阅读任务均会影响英语阅读的词频效应,而高水平组被试在英语阅读中的认知灵活性更强。     

双字词整词加工与词素加工在眼跳目标选择中的作用

为探讨整词与词素加工在眼跳目标选择中的作用,本研究采用眼动追踪技术,实验1操纵了目标词的词频（高频、低频）和目标词首字字频（高频、低频）;实验2操纵了目标词的词频（高频、低频）和尾字字频（高频、低频）。结果发现：首字字频不影响眼跳目标选择。尾字字频影响眼跳目标选择,当目标词为低频词时,高频尾字条件下从前目标词到目标词的眼跳长度显著地短于低频字条件;当目标词向前眼跳从尾字发出且目标词为低频词时,高频尾字下的眼跳长度显著地长于低频条件。词频影响眼跳目标选择,高频词条件下跳进和跳出目标词的眼跳长度均长于低频词条件。结果表明整词与尾字词素的加工负荷影响随后的眼跳计划,加工负荷越低随后所计划的眼跳长度越长,尾字词素的加工受整词加工的调节,整词与词素加工以混合表征的方式影响眼动控制。     

自我参照加工中的频率作用二重性

本实验在三种加工水平下考察了自我参照加工和频率作用二重性的关系,实验分为回忆部分和再认部分,三组被试分别进行自我参照、他人参照和一般语义加工,再认测验包括R／K判断。结果发现,在一般的回忆和再认模式下,自我参照加工中的频率作用二重性依然存在,即回忆中高频词的成绩优于低频词,而再认中低频词的成绩优于高频词;但在R／K判断上,对于低频词,无论哪一种参照加工的R都大于K,但对于高频词,只有自我参照加工的R仍大于K。最后,本文从自我参照加工的独特性对结果进行了讨论。     

汉语中词长效应的初步实验研究

该文以回忆出一个词表的序列呈现顺序的正确率为指标考察汉语中的词长效应(Word-Length Effect)。实验材料为汉语中不同音节数目的词语。实验结果发现,在纯词表中,存在显著的词长效应。但是在混合词表中(包括长短词交替词表以及随机词表),词长效应会消失。研究结果支持词长效应的基于词表的解释,同时,项目的特异性也具有一定的作用。     

The influence of word frequency on recency effects in directed free recall

Leading theoretical explanations of recency effects are designed to explain the reported absence of a word frequency effect on recall of words from recency serial positions. The present study used a directed free-recall procedure (J. J. Dalezman, 1976) and manipulated the frequency composition of the word lists (pure and mixed). Overall, with pure lists, a greater proportion of high-frequency (HF) words were recalled than low-frequency (LF) words, and with mixed lists, a greater proportion of LF words were recalled than HF words. Of importance, this recall advantage for one frequency over the other as a function of list composition was evident across the last three serial positions, indicating an influence of word frequency on recency effects that is dependent on the frequency composition of the lists. These results challenge one of the major assumptions on which several theories of recency effects have been based.     

Using overt rehearsals to explain word frequency effects in free recall

Three experiments examined the word frequency effect in free recall using the overt rehearsal methodology. Experiment 1 showed that lists of exclusively high-frequency (HF) words were better recalled, were rehearsed more, and were rehearsed to more recent serial positions than low-frequency (LF) words. A small HF advantage remained even when these 2 variables were equated. Experiment 2 showed that all these effects were much reduced with mixed lists containing both HF and LF words. Experiment 3 compared pure and mixed lists in a within-subject design and confirmed the findings of Experiments 1 and 2. It is argued that number of rehearsals, recency of rehearsals, and strength of interitem associations cause the word frequency effect in free recall.     

Word frequency and list composition effects in associative recognition and recall

The effects of list composition and word frequency on cued recall, associative recognition, and item recognition were examined in three experiments For pure-frequency lists, cued recall and associative recognition show better performance on common high-frequency (HF) words than on rare low-frequency (LF) words. Item recognition, however, shows an advantage for LF words. In mixed lists, consisting of half HF and half LF words, the HF advantage in cued recall disappeared; however, the word frequency effects in item and associative recognition were unchanged. These results are inconsistent with explanations based on differential attention or co-rehearsal of KF and LF words. However, the results are consistent with list strength results which show that recognition is insensitive to strength-based list composition, but that recall is sensitive to list composition.     

Effects of word frequency on individual-item and serial order retention: Tests of the order-encoding view

The order-encoding view of the word frequency effect proposes that low-frequency (LF) items attract more attention to the encoding of individual-item information than do high-frequency (HF) items, but at the expense of order encoding (DeLosh & McDaniel, 1996). When combined with the assumption that free recall of unrelated words is organized according to their original order of presentation, this view explains the finding that HF words are better recalled than LF words in pure lists but that, in mixed lists, recall is better for LF words. The present study confirmed that in mixed lists, order memory becomes equivalent for HF and LF words and that the predicted pattern of order memory and recall holds fo r incidental order-encoding conditions, for longerlists than those used inprevious experiments, and for lists with minimal interitem associativity. Moreover, recall from HF lists declined, but recall from LF lists improved, in related-word lists, relative to unrelated-word lists, reversing the usual pure-list free recall advantage for HF words. These results were uniquely predicted by the order-encoding account and favor this view over accessibility, interitem association, and cuing effectiveness explanations of the word frequency effect.     

Conditional recall and the frequency effect in the serial recall task: an examination of item-to-item associativity

The frequency effect in short-term serial recall is influenced by the composition of lists. In pure lists, a robust advantage in the recall of high-frequency (HF) words is observed, yet in alternating mixed lists, HF and low-frequency (LF) words are recalled equally well. It has been argued that the preexisting associations between all list items determine a single, global level of supportive activation that assists item recall. Preexisting associations between items are assumed to be a function of language co-occurrence; HF?CHF associations are high, LF?CLF associations are low, and mixed associations are intermediate in activation strength. This account, however, is based on results when alternating lists with equal numbers of HF and LF words were used. It is possible that directional association between adjacent list items is responsible for the recall patterns reported. In the present experiment, the recall of three forms of mixed lists??those with equal numbers of HF and LF items and pure lists??was examined to test the extent to which item-to-item associations are present in serial recall. Furthermore, conditional probabilities were used to examine more closely the evidence for a contribution, since correct-in-position scoring may mask recall that is dependent on the recall of prior items. The results suggest that an item-to-item effect is clearly present for early but not late list items, and they implicate an additional factor, perhaps the availability of resources at output, in the recall of late list items.     

A recency-based account of the list length effect in free recall

Free recall was examined using the overt rehearsal methodology with lists of 10, 20, and 30 words. The standard list length effects were obtained: As list length increased, there was an increase in the number and a decrease in the proportion of words that were recalled. There were significant primacy and recency effects with all list lengths. However, when the data were replotted in terms of when the words were last rehearsed, recall was characterized by extended recency effects, and the data from the different list lengths were superimposed upon one another. These findings support a recency-based account of episodic memory. The list length effect reflects the facts that unrehearsed words are less recent with longer lists, and that with longer lists, a reduced proportion of primacy and middle items may be rehearsed to later positions.     

Recency judgments as a function of word frequency: A framing effect and frequency misattributions

The effects of word frequency on judgments of recency of item presentation were examined in two experiments. Subjects in Experiment 1 were presented two mixed lists of high- and low-frequency words followed by a list assignment task for recognized items. It was found that subjects were biased toward assigning low-frequency words to the more recently presented list. Subjects in Experiment 2 were presented a single mixed list of high- and low-frequency words followed by either a relative recency of presentation judgment task or a relative primacy of presentation judgment task. Each word pair on the tests contained one high-frequency word and one low-frequency word. It was found that, for the recency judgment task, subjects were biased to select the low-frequency item as having been presented more recently. However, on the parallel primacy judgment task, there were no effects of word frequency; moreover, overall accuracy levels were higher with primacy than with recency instructions. We interpret the effects of word frequency on recency judgments in Experiments 1 and 2 in terms of a misattribution of frequency-related differences in recollection-based recognition. The finding that recency and primacy instructions produced different patterns of results provides further evidence (Flexser & Bower, 1974) for an effect on performance of the way in which the temporal judgment task was framed.     

Word frequency influences on the list length effect and associative memory in young and older adults

Many studies show that age deficits in memory are smaller for information supported by pre-experimental experience. Many studies also find dissociations in memory tasks between words that occur with high and low frequencies in language, but the literature is mixed regarding the extent of word frequency effects in normal ageing. We examined whether age deficits in episodic memory could be influenced by manipulations of word frequency. In Experiment 1, young and older adults studied short and long lists of high- and low-frequency words for free recall. The list length effect (the drop in proportion recalled for longer lists) was larger in young compared to older adults and for high- compared to low-frequency words. In Experiment 2, young and older adults completed item and associative recognition memory tests with high- and low-frequency words. Age deficits were greater for associative memory than for item memory, demonstrating an age-related associative deficit. High-frequency words led to better associative memory performance whilst low-frequency words resulted in better item memory performance. In neither experiment was there any evidence for age deficits to be smaller for high- relative to low-frequency words, suggesting that word frequency effects on memory operate independently from effects due to cognitive ageing.     

Effects of study list composition on the word frequency effect and metacognitive attributions in recognition memory

In two experiments, study-list composition was manipulated and its impact was observed on metacognitive judgements associated with recognition hits (Hs) and false alarms (FAs). Both studies involved recognition of high-frequency (HF) and low-frequency (LF) words, and focused on the FA portion of the word frequency effect. Our hypothesis was that participants can actively reject items that are distinctive from the study list, and that this effect may be strong enough to overcome the FA word frequency effect. Experiment 1 manipulated list composition with a conjunctive rule and Experiment 2 varied it by having participants study either HF or LF items prior to a test consisting of words of both frequencies. In each study H rate, FA rate, and metacognitive attributions underlying recognition decisions were investigated. In both studies, participants reported rejecting test items predominantly through a process of active rejection, which was more often reported for LF items. This effect was strong enough to reverse the FA portion of the word frequency effect in Experiment 2, but not Experiment 1. The results are discussed in terms of metacognitive rejection mechanisms in recognition memory.     

Bartlett revisited: Direct comparison of repeated reproduction and serial reproduction techniques

Bartlett developed the procedures of repeated reproduction (the same person repeatedly recalling information) and serial reproduction (people transmitting information from one person to another). Our experiment directly compared recall accuracy across these two techniques, which has not previously been reported, using DRM word lists. Recall of the initial study list words remained constant across repeated reproductions but declined markedly across serial reproductions. In contrast, recall of associated words that were not originally studied (i.e. critical words) was steady across both conditions. Because more of the original list words were forgotten across each link of the serial reproduction chain, the proportion of critical items recalled (relative to list words) increased significantly as the list passed between people. Using output bound scoring, serial reproduction resulted in lower accuracy than repeated reproduction by the final recall trial. Our results are broadly consistent with Bartlett's (1932) informal observations: Serial reproduction produces greater forgetting of the original material than does repeated reproduction and also leads to greater distortion relative to the proportion of correct material recalled.