Effects of differences in achievement motivation and amount of exposure on responses to uncontrollable rewards

Within a triadic experimental design, 80 subjects classified as high or low in achievement motivation were given either standard or extended exposure to uncontrollable rewards. Subjects high in achievement motivation displayed facilitation following standard training that was eliminated following extended training. While this conforms with Wortman and Brehm's model integrating reactance theory and learned helplessness theory, in general the results were more accurately described by predictions based on a modification of the theory of achievement motivation. Because the experimental procedure induced the perception of uncontrollability independently of perceived failure, the results were seen as extending the generality of the latter theory.     

Sex differences in achievement motivation

Abstract.— Norwegian undergraduate psychology students were given Heckhausen's TAT test of achievement motivation prior to or after final course examination. Women obtained higher mean score on Fear of Failure than men on both occasions. There was no sex difference in length of protocol, nor was this variable related to any of the motivation scores. Success in terms of examination results did not affect motivation scores, whereas failure led to higher score on Hope of Success for men but not for women.     

Individual differences in resultant achievement motivation and latency to and persistence at an achievement task

Alternative hypotheses generated from the Atkinson (1957) and Atkinson and Feather (1966) risk-taking model of achievement motivation and the Atkinson and Birch (1970) dynamics of action theory comparing groups high and low in resultant achievement motivation (RAM) on latency to and persistence at an achievement task were tested. Subjects who had made two or more atypical shifts (choice of an easier task following success and choice of a more difficult task following failure) during 21 trials of a target-shooting game the first week were classified as low RAM (n=154), and subjects who had made 0 or 1 atypical shift were classified as high RAM (n=155). In week 2 subjects divided their time among two nonachievement tasks and the very easy, easy, intermediate, difficult, or most difficult levels of the achievement task. No main effects or interactions were found when latency to the achievement task was analyzed in a RAM by Difficulty level × Gender individual difference design. High-RAM subjects persisted significantly longer than low-RAM subjects across all conditions. Results are explained using the dynamic concepts of instigation, inhibition, and consummation. Analyses of sequential choices (week 1) among five difficulty levels did not support the Atkinson (1957) explanation of atypical shifts as avoidance of intermediate challenges for low-RAM subjects. Subjects who avoided the target-shooting game the second week more often persisted at the very easy task following success but not at the most difficult task following failure, results that are partially supportive of Feather's (1961) analysis of persistence.I wish to thank Dr. David Reuman, who suggested the research topic; the 24 undergraduate research assistants who ran subjects for this experiment; Rochelle Breitenbach, Laurie Colisanti, Kevin Kurkowski, Lee Ann McHenry, and Brenda Yee, who assisted with the data preparation and analyses; Ann Beck and Randi Gilbert, who provided editorial assistance; and Dr. Tilly Houtmans, who commented on an earlier version of this paper. A paper based on the dynamics of action research was presented at the Nags Head Conference on Motivation and Emotion on June 17, 1990. A paper based on the level of aspiration/achievement motivation results was presented at the Third International Meeting of the Society for the Advancement of Field Theory on September 16, 1988. A copy of the BASIC program for the Apple IIe computer is available to anyone who sends a 5 1/4-inch diskette.     

Gender differences in autonomous and social achievement orientations

This research examined gender differences in orientations toward autonomous and social achievement. Three independent samples of subjects (total N= 359 males and 574 females) completed measures of achievement orientation (including Strumpfer's [1975] Autonomous Achievement Values and Social Achievement Values scales) and relevant cognitive, affective, and behavioral variables. Correlational and factor analyses clearly identified distinct autonomous and social achievement factors for both men and women in each of the samples. Examination of the correlates of achievement orientation indicated that whereas an autonomous achievement orientation is similarly expressed in males and females, there are considerable sex differences in the expression of an orientation toward social achievement. In particular, a social achievement orientation was associated with concerns over social approval and responsiveness to social influence among males, but was generally unrelated to these factors among females. Findings are discussed in terms of several recent hypotheses concerning the effects of sex role norms on the development and expression of achievement needs in men and women.     

Characteristics of academically-influential children: achievement motivation and social status

The contributions of academic achievement motivation and social status to peer-reported academic influence were explored in a sample of 322 children in grades three through five. Latent moderated structural equation modeling indicated that children who value academics are more likely to be rated by peers as academically influential. Social status also explained variability in academic influence, with well-liked and/or perceived popular children receiving more influence nominations than children low in social status. Additionally, social status moderated the relationship between motivation and influence such that children who were high in both academic value and social status were more likely to be nominated as academically influential than children low in those constructs. Contrary to expectations, academic self-efficacy was unrelated to peer-reported academic influence.     

Effect of achievement motivation on cognitive control adaptations

Previous research addressing motivational effects on cognitive control adaptations primarily manipulated external rewards. In the present study, we examined whether achievement motivation, reflecting intrinsic motivation, modulates cognitive control adaptations. In each of two experiments, students were divided into a high achievement motivation group (HAM; Experiment 1: N?=?36; Experiment 2: N?=?39) and a low achievement motivation group (LAM; Experiment 1: N?=?30; Experiment 2: N?=?39) on the basis of the Achievement Motivation Scale. Cognitive control adaptations were assessed by sequential congruency effects (SCEs) in Flanker tasks. Using a standard Flanker task in Experiment 1 and examining response times, the HAM but not LAM participants showed evidence of cognitive control adaptations. Because SCEs in a standard Flanker task may reflect lower-level, bottom-up processes rather than cognitive control adaptations, we used an adapted version of the Flanker task in Experiment 2 that controlled for the potential influence of such processes. Experiment 2 again revealed evidence of SCEs in the HAM but not LAM participants. These results suggest that cognitive control adaptions may be modulated by achievement motivation. Such potential modulation could be taken into account when evaluating results of previous and future fundamental and applied studies on cognitive control adaptations.     

Individual differences in intuitive processing moderate responses to moral transgressions

Despite the widespread recognition that intuitive processing is integral to moral judgment, research has provided minimal support for the role of individual differences in faith in intuition (FI) in moral outcomes. We propose that reliance on intuitive processing is likely to influence moral behavior when people experience internally generated morally-relevant feelings. We conducted two studies to test this proposal, examining whether FI would moderate the effects of moral recall manipulations on morally-relevant outcomes. In Study 1 (N = 120), FI moderated the effects of condition such that after imagining telling a lie in an email, people high in FI gave increased valuations of hand cleansing products. In Study 2 (N = 197), FI moderated the effects of condition such that after recalling a past personally relevant immoral act, FI predicted less cheating on an unsolvable IQ test. Implications for moral psychology and the importance of theoretically informed methods for studying the role of individual differences in intuitive processing are discussed.     

Sex differences in achievement/career motivation of Iranian boys and girls

The relationships of early socialization, socioeconomic status (SES), religion, community discrimination, and community resources (all as possible predictor variables) to achievement/career motivation (the criterion variables) for 200 Iranian high school senior girls and boys were studied. Multiple regression analyses were performed to identify how much variance was accounted for by each predictor variable. In addition, a discriminant function analysis based on four linear combinations of the predictors for high and low SES, and for males and females, was performed to identify the best and strongest predictors. Through content analysis of the projective protocols representing achievement motivation, no significant achieving imagery was found for these Iranian subjects. The measure did, however, provoke imagery indicative of the subjects' preoccupation with marriage and/or affiliation with the opposite sex. Consistent with research findings in the United States, Iranian females scored lower in career motivation and expressed less belief in sex discriminatory myths than did males. The upper SES subjects of both sexes showed a higher level of career aspiration, and perceived more community resources for their careers, than did the lower SES groups. Sex, SES, community discrimination, and heterosexual interest contributed more heavily than the other predictors in predicting the variance of career motivation. Possible implications of the results for improving Iranian women's achievement/career motivation are discussed. A need for a more cross-culturally appropriate measure of achievement motivation is suggested.This study was supported, in part, by the University of Illinois Center for International and Comparative Studies. The author is indebted to Drs. Martin L. Maehr and Helen S. Farmer of the University of Illinois for their direction and advice in conducting this study.     

Assessing individual differences in achievement motivation with the Implicit Association Test

The authors examined the validity of an Implicit Association Test (Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) for assessing individual differences in achievement tendencies. Eighty-eight students completed an IAT and explicit self-ratings of achievement orientation, and were then administered a mental concentration test that they performed either in the presence or in the absence of achievement-related feedback. Implicit and explicit measures of achievement orientation were uncorrelated. Under feedback, the IAT uniquely predicted students’ test performance but failed to predict their self-reported task enjoyment. Conversely, explicit self-ratings were unrelated to test performance but uniquely related to subjective accounts of task enjoyment. Without feedback, individual differences in both performance and enjoyment were independent of differences in either of the two achievement orientation measures.     

The influence of retailer size on consumer responses to social responsibility initiatives

The current research demonstrates that retailer size moderates the positive effect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives on consumer outcomes such as increased purchase intentions and perceptions of CSR. Retailer size is introduced as a factor that leads consumers to respond more positively to small retailers' CSR activities, relative to CSR from large retailers. We also provide support for the ability of consistency/commitment to CSR to serve as a means by which larger retailers can counter their size liability. We replicate and generalize these results across multiple CSR forms. Implications for retail management and future research are discussed.     

Racial and ethnic differences in motivation for educational achievement in the United States

Data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study [National Educational Longitudinal Study, (1994). National Educational Longitudinal Study: second follow-up (Report No.94-374). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education] show that on standardised scores in mathematics, reading and science, the highest mean scores are obtained by Asians and whites and lower scores are obtained by Hispanics and blacks. The same differences are present for the number of hours per week devoted to homework. It is suggested that motivational differences expressed in the amount of homework undertaken contribute to the group differences in educational achievement. Statistically significant correlations between the amount of homework and educational achievement support this hypothesis. There are also group differences in intelligence parallel to those in educational achievement, suggesting both intelligence and motivation are involved in racial and ethnic differences in educational achievement.     

Effects of social and intellectual instruction on achievement motivation as a function of role orientation

University women preselected for traditionality of role orientation were administered a task described as a test either of intelligence or social skills. Results generally supported the hypothesis that instructions interact with a women's role orientation in determining both her achievement motivation, as measured projectively, and her performance. Differences in motivation and performance were interpreted in terms of women's definitions of appropriate achievement situations. Nontraditional women displayed achievement motivation on a projective measure under standard intellectual arousal conditions. Traditionally role-oriented women displayed greater achievement motivation under affiliative arousal conditions. The importance of measuring achievement in traditionally feminine areas, in addition to more traditionally masculine intellectual achievement, was stressed.Portions of this research were included in a thesis submitted by the first author in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the M.A. degree at the University of Illinois at Chicago Circle.     

Independent effects of achievement motivation and overt attribution on achievement behavior

The cognitive attribution theory of achievement motivation was examined in a series of three studies. The persistence of performance under failure feedback was investigated, with improvement over trials on a digit-symbol substitution task constituting the measure of persistence. Although evidence was obtained relating overt causal attributions of failure to persistence, partial correlation statistics indicated that this relationship was independent of achievement motivation. Partial correlation statistics also revealed that the relationship between achievement motivation and persistence was independent of attributional variables. In addition, greater persistence was exhibited by high- than by low-achievement subjects in the absence of attribution differences between these groups. Additional evidence was collected suggesting that the act of overt attribution was an ego-involving operation that led to these achievement differences in improvement. In general, achievement classification and overt causal attributions had separate effects on persistence, precluding the interpretation of achievement-related behavior in terms of attribution theory. Overt causal attributions were found to be, in part, a function of the ego-involving character of the task instructions, as was improvement.Portions of this research were conducted while L. A. White was supported by a Purdue University David Ross Research Fellowship; Kay Deaux, principal investigator.     

Effects of achievement motivation, social identity, and peer group norms on academic conformity

This study investigated whether academic achievement motivation and social identity explain variation in children’s conformity to positive academic behaviors (n = 455 children in grades three through five). Structural equation modeling suggested that academic value and peer group academic norms were positively related to academic conformity. Specifically, children who enjoyed academic pursuits and who belonged to academically-inclined peer groups were more likely to conform to novel academic behaviors than children who did not. Additionally, academic value moderated the relationship between peer group norms and conformity, implying that, for students who do not value academics, belonging to a peer group with high academic norms will lead to more conformity to academic behaviors than belonging to a peer group with low academic norms. In contrast, analyses suggested that some aspects of achievement motivation and social identity are unrelated to academic conformity. Implications for encouraging positive academic behaviors in middle childhood are discussed.     

Goals: an approach to motivation and achievement

This study tested a framework in which goals are proposed to be central determinants of achievement patterns. Learning goals, in which individuals seek to increase their competence, were predicted to promote challenge-seeking and a mastery-oriented response to failure regardless of perceived ability. Performance goals, in which individuals seek to gain favorable judgments of their competence or avoid negative judgments, were predicted to produce challenge-avoidance and learned helplessness when perceived ability was low and to promote certain forms of risk-avoidance even when perceived ability was high. Manipulations of relative goal value (learning vs. performance) and perceived ability (high vs. low) resulted in the predicted differences on measures of task choice, performance during difficulty, and spontaneous verbalizations during difficulty. Particularly striking was the way in which the performance goal-low perceived ability condition produced the same pattern of strategy deterioration, failure attribution, and negative affect found in naturally occurring learned helplessness. Implications for theories of motivation and achievement are discussed.     

Age differences in attitude change: influences of cognitive resources and motivation on responses to argument quantity

This study examined the influences of cognitive resources and motivation on how young and older adults process different quantities of persuasive arguments. In the first experiment session, both young and older adults rated their attitudes toward marijuana legalization and capital punishment. After a week, they read either 3 or 9 similar-quality arguments supporting marijuana legalization and capital punishment. Half of participants were assigned to the high-involvement condition (i.e., told that they were going to discuss the arguments later with the experimenter) and the other half were assigned to the low-involvement condition (i.e., given no instructions). After reading the arguments, participants rated their attitudes toward those 2 social issues again. Highly involved young adults changed their attitudes regardless of the quantity of arguments, whereas lowly involved young adults' attitude change was influenced by the argument quantity. Older adults in both high-involvement and low-involvement conditions changed their attitudes according to the argument quantity. Working memory was found to mediate the age effects on attitude change. This finding demonstrated the importance of a cognitive mechanism in accounting for age differences in attitude change.