Individual differences in cognition: Relationship between verbal ability and memory for order

The crucial role of order information in language has led to the suggestion that psychometrically measured verbal ability may be related to memory for order. The literature pertaining to this hypothesis is briefly reviewed and various methodological difficulties discussed. The results of three experiments indicated that (a) order and item information may be retained separately; (b) verbal ability is related to the short-term recall of order; (c) verbal ability is unrelated to memory for order when testing involves recognition rather than recall; and (d) the relationship between verbal ability and memory for order is most pronounced when the originally presented order must be transformed at output (as in the “digits backward” task). An output process in which material is decoded and held in an output buffer until decoding is complete is viewed as the most likely locus of the verbal ability-memory for order relationship.     

Selective association learning in the rat: Generality of response system

Three experiments with rats examined the possibility that the cue-consequence specificity effect is not mediated by the conditioning of selective associations, but instead reflects the selective behavioral expression of taste-illness and exteroceptive-shock conditioning. Experiment 1 showed that the selective aversion performance could be obtained despite the use of locomotor withdrawal from the CS as the index of conditioning. Experiment 2 compared the response profiles of animals conditioned with footshock or illness to presentation of a saccharin or noise CS. During the test with the noise CS, lithium-conditioned subjects did not differ from control rats on any of several behavioral categories, but shock-conditioned rats showed high levels of freezing in response to the noise cue. During the saccharin test, lithium-treated rats engaged in behaviors such as chin wiping, head shaking, and gaping; these behaviors were rarely or never seen in shock-conditioned rats or controls, whose behavioral profiles during the saccharin test were almost identical. Experiment 3, using a blocking design, found that a noise-lithium pairing did not attenuate subsequent conditioning of a saline-lithium association, nor did a saccharin-shock pairing interfere with conditioning of a noise-shock association. These results confirm that the cue-consequence specificity effect is mediated by the selective associability of taste with illness and of exteroceptive cues with footshock.     

Statistical inference in personality research

Statistical significance, by itself, is not a sufficient condition for claiming that a hypothesis has been supported. Constructive replications are considerably more important. Unfortunately, classical (Fisherian) statistics are not easily adapted to sequential research strategies; their focus is the single experiment. For this reason, statistically significant results may be meaningless while a particular sequence of nonsignificant results may be quite important. Advice on how to overcome some limitations of classical statistical procedures is given, along with a compendium of “do's and don't's.”     

Memory and personality: An information processing approach

A consensual model of memory, based on information processing theory is presented. The experimental literature on the interaction between memory and personality is reviewed in terms of this model. It is suggested that past study in this area has failed to utilize the knowledge and techniques of information processing theory, and as a result, has confounded experimental variables. Suggestions for more appropriate research are presented.     

Vocational interest and personality differences between development and research personnel: A field study

Employees classified into development and research groups were contrasted for differences in vocational interest and personality inventory responses. Discriminant and classification analyses indicated that these two groups could be distinguished. Development personnel exhibited greater interests in supervisory-related areas, but researchers showed a tendency toward high specialization and academic interests. With respect to personality characteristics, development personnel described themselves as more dominant, defensive, and achieving, yet less critical than research personnel.     

Individual differences among children in spelling and reading styles

Previous studies have found differences among children in their relative reliance on spelling-sound rules and word-specific associations in reading words. Children at one end of the continuum ("Phoenicians") rely heavily on spelling-sound rules; children at the other end ("Chinese") are more likely to use specific associations. This study found evidence for a Phoenician-Chinese continuum in spelling as well as in reading. Ability to spell nonsense word (e.g., "prunt") correlated more highly with ability to spell regular words (e.g., "grunt") than with ability to spell exception words (e.g., "front"). Children who were skilled at rules tended to overgeneralize them to exception words. In addition, a measure of rule use in spelling correlated with measures of rule use in reading.     

Individual differences in preschool object play: The influences of anxiety proneness and peer affiliation

Individual differences in anxiety and peer affiliation were investigated as factors influencing variability of object play among preschoolers. Eighteen three-year-olds were divided into high- and low-anxious groups on the bases of separation anxiety and general anxiety scales. Their mature and immature object play, their peer affiliation, and their peer-watching behaviors were observed in preschools. Low-anxious children played more, showed more mature play, and watched peers less when they were alone; high-anxious children showed no play increases but watched peers more when alone. Separation anxiety scores predicted preschool differences more sensitively than general anxiety scores. It was theorized that separation anxiety related mechanisms hinder children's ability to fully profit from preschool experiences.     

Prototypicality and personality: Effects on free recall and personality impressions

An experiment was performed to test the hypothesis that it is easier to process information about characters who fit well with and are, therefore, “prototypical” of shared beliefs about various personality types. Character prototypicality was manipulated in a free recall and personality impression paradigm through variations in the consistency of a character's identification with preexisting beliefs about two personality-type categories—extraversion and introversion. Subjects also were given information about each character that varied in degree of abstraction from traits to concrete behavior. As predicted, both the amount and nature of the information correctly recalled were significantly affected by the consistency of the character's identification with extraversion or with introversion. Character consistency also significantly affected the amount of material written in the personality impressions and the tendency to qualify the generality of the impressions. The results support a model in which incoming data about personality are coded, structured, elaborated, and remembered according to the quality of their match with preexisting beliefs about various personality types.     

Individual differences in aggressive responses to attack: Internal-external locus of control and field dependence-independence

Two experiments assessed the effect of individual differences on aggression. In both studies subjects were exposed to opponents in the competitive reaction time task who decreased the intensity of their attack from high to low, remained constantly moderate in their attack, or increased the intensity of their attack from low to high. In the first experiment Internal Locus of Control subjects consistently set high intensity shocks in response to high intensity attack and low shocks in response to mild attack. External subjects showed relatively minor variations in their aggressive responses to varying intensities of attack. In the second experiment field-independent subjects set more intense shocks than field-dependent subjects only in the Decreasing attack condition.     

Multivariate relationships between measures of learning style and memory

Three self-report instruments assessing “learning style” were administered to 106 undergraduate students: the Inventory of Learning Processes, the Study Behavior Questionnaire, and the Learning Style Inventory. Performance measures on word list and prose learning tasks were also obtained using both immediate and delayed retention tests. Canonical correlation analysis of the pairs of learning style instruments indicated that there was a small to moderate amount of overlapped variance. Inspection of the canonical variates revealed that what overlap existed was generally due to a common factor related to the depth of processing conception of memory. No significant canonical correlations were obtained between any of the learning style instruments and word list retention measures. However, the Inventory of Learning Processes and the Learning Style Inventory each obtained one significant canonical correlation with the set of prose retention measures. There was little overlap between sets of retention measures derived separately from prose and word list tasks. The findings have implications concerning (a) the validity and equivalency of available self-report instruments assessing learning style, (b) the role of the learning task in studying individual differences in learning and memory processes, and (c) the assessment of “depth of processing” at the level of individual differences.     

Self-esteem as a moderator of performance-satisfaction relationships

Korman's (Journal of Applied Psychology, 1968, 52, 484–490) prediction that performance and satisfaction should be positively related for high self-esteem individuals and unrelated for low self-esteem individuals was tested with samples of scientists, engineers, homemakers, firefighters, and clerical workers. Although there was a slight tendency for this prediction to be supported with the male scientist, engineer, and firefighter samples, Korman's theory was unsupported in the homemaker and clerical worker samples. Since the correlations found for low and high self-esteem persons significantly differed in only one of eight comparisons, self-esteem did not appear to be a reliable moderator of the performance-satisfaction relationship. Problems with previous studies purporting to test Korman's prediction are discussed, and the possibility of a confound between self-esteem and sex role and/or status is introduced.     

Individual differences in the game motives of Own,Relative, and Joint gain

Two hundred and eighteen undergraduates (94 males and 124 females) made decisions in same-sex dyads across four types of 3-choice decomposed games. An analysis of each subject's choices was performed to see if he or she consistently pursued one of the three motives of Own (Individualism), Relative (Competition) or Joint (Cooperation) gain across all four decomposed games. Sixty-six percent of the subjects manifested such consistency, and sex of subject was unrelated to which goal was pursued. Of the remaining 32%, a sizable subgroup ($\text{1}\text{3}$) was shown to be making its choices in an Altruistic fashion, attempting to maximize the outcomes of the other subject. An analysis of variance of the F scale scores of subjects in these motivational categories yielded an effect (p < .025), with the Competitive group having the highest, and the Altruistic group having the lowest mean authoritarianism score. Correlational analyses indicated negative r's between degree of Competition and F score, positive r's between degree of Altruism and F, but no apparent relation between F and either Individualistic or Joint gain choice.     

Spatial visualization and sex differences in quantitative ability

The hypothesis that sex differences in spatial visualization ability might account for sex differences in mathematical ability was supported for a group of 183 male and 81 female college students. With spatial visualization statistically controlled, no significant sex differences in Quantitative Scholastic Aptitude Test (QSAT) scores was found; including sex as a predictor variable increased the variance explained by less than 1%. Although the slope of the regression of mathematics on spatial visualization did not differ as a function of sex, males were somewhat more predictable than females. As the OSAT of both males and females high on spatial visualization was more predictable than the QSAT of those scoring less well, it appears that the sex difference in predictability is due to males having higher spatial ability than females.     

Power and speed components of individual differences in letter matching

Several previous studies have reported a correlation (typically around −.30) between standardized verbal ability test scores and name identity minus physical identity reaction times (NI-PI) in a letter-matching task. This correlation has usually been thought to reflect the mutual dependence of both measures on long-term memory access time. The present research was designed to assess Carroll's (1981) suggestions that: (a) NI — PI may not be the optimal formula for predicting standardized test scores from letter matching data, and (b) NI — PI may actually be related to the speed rather than the power component of standardized tests. Fifty-one subjects previously tested with a standardized reading test participated in letter-matching and word-reading tasks. The latter tasks required subjects to read words and specially constructed pseudowords. Power and speed measures were derived from the word-reading tasks and the standardized test on theoretical grounds (and supported by a principal components analysis). The results supported both of Carroll's contentions. NI — PI reaction time was related more to speed than power and the NI — PI statistic (as usually used) was not the optimum formula for predicting standardized test scores.     

Developmental differences in recall and recognition: The relationship between rehearsal and memory as test expectation changes

An overt rehearsal procedure was used to study the relationship between children's rehearsal strategies and their memory performance under different conditions of test expectation. Previous work has shown that developmental differences in rehearsal content affect recall performance. This study was designed to address the question of why active rehearsal content results in superior recall performance. The equivalence of recognition-memory performance for third- (age 9) and sixthgraders (age 12) suggests that developmental differences in recall are due to the effects of rehearsal content on item retrieval from permanent memory. In addition, the data indicate that third- and sixth-graders can differentiate between expected recall and recognition tests and, with the exception of the sixth-grade boys, use this information to modify their rehearsal content. These differences in rehearsal content, as a function of the type of test expected, corresponded to changes in recall performance.     

Organization in visual episodic memory: relationships between verbalized knowledge, strategy use, and performance

Relationships between verbalized knowledge (metamemory), strategy use, and performance were examined in a memory task for visually presented episodes. Kindergarten, second-grade, and fifth-grade students were asked to reconstruct a sequence of pictures forming an episode from an array of original pictures and foils. The episodes varied on two dimensions; materials type and the logic of the sequence. Materials were either typical (familiar animal characters and scenes) or atypical (geometric figures) story materials. Sequences either readily conveyed a story (logical) or were rearranged to present a random ordering of pictures (illogical). Children were questioned about their use of a story line to help remember the picture sequences (general questioning) and were asked more specific questions concerning the reasons for their picture selection during the task (specific questioning). Children at all ages recalled logical sequences better than illogical ones. Second- and fifth-grade children recalled animal episodes better than geometric form episodes. Children at all ages showed a correspondence between strategy use and metamemory as assessed by verbalization of relationships among pictures during the specific questioning. However, when the more typical general question format was used to assess metamemory, strategy use preceded verbalized knowledge of strategy use.     

The rapid-smoking technique: Some physiological effects

The effects of rapid smoking on the blood pressure, pulse rate and cardiac functioning of 58 smokers (30 women and 28 men) are reported. All subjects were healthy volunteers, 45 were under 40 yr of age, the remaining 13 between 40 and 50 yr. They received between 6 and 12 rapid smoking sessions. It was found that, in both the under and over 40 age groups, blood pressure levels and pulse rates increased significantly following rapid smoking sessions. There were, however, significant decreases between sessions and no evidence of a cumulative effect of successive rapid smoking sessions. Some qualitative changes in cardiac functioning were observed, namely the appearance of T wave flattening and S-T depression. None of the changes were considered to be of sufficient magnitude to necessitate exclusion from the programme, but confirm the need to monitor closely the physiological functioning of persons undergoing rapid smoking.     

Moral cognition and moral action: A theoretical perspective

Considerable theoretical work has been done in the area of moral reasoning. However, little conceptual thinking has been done about the relations between moral cognition and moral action. As a result, empirical research in this area has been unsystematic and difficult to interpret. A theoretical model, the Self Model, is proposed here, starting from the assumption that moral reasons are functionally related to action. First, a concept of cognitive motivation is presented as necessary for any cognitive account of morality. Two cognitive approaches to moral conduct, Piaget's and Haan's, are then discussed in their positive contributions and in their limitations. The Self Model is finally described through a set of empirically testable propositions. Its major theoretical characteristics are: it is cognitive, recognizing as the central function of human cognition the appraisal of truth; it acknowledges a basic duality of motivation, but stresses the normative pull of cognitive motivation; it is developmental; it uses the self as the central explanatory concept, establishing both the sense of personal responsibility and the dynamism of self-consistency.     

Individualized learning environments: Intra- and interpersonal consequences

This study examines the effects of individual goal structures on the intra- and interpersonal behavior of 120 fourth-grade children. Each group of four children was introduced to one of two individualized learning programs: (a) workbook materials color-coded according to level of difficulty (allowing implicit comparisons among children as to progress), and (b) materials not coded according to difficulty (discouraging comparisons). In both learning programs, children worked individually (at story writing) and were rewarded for the work. Results indicate that boys, but not girls, who were rewarded equally for doing good work in an individualized setting but who start and end at a lower step than other more frequently took away a toy from those peers with whom they compared themselves than did boys who were rewarded equally for good work and where there were no comparisons. Boys as a group, regardles of condition, gave more prize tickets to themselves than to others and gave more prize tickets to themselves than girls gave either to themselves or others. Both boys and girls appear to adopt the evaluations of their work given by the experimenter and appear to be influenced thereby in later prized-giving to themselves and to others.