自爱与他爱:自恋、共情与内隐利他的关系

自恋者具有低共情的人格特征,而共情是引发利他行为的重要动力。本文通过两个实验研究试图揭示不同情境下,自恋对共情与内隐利他的影响。结果表明:(1)自恋组与非自恋组被试均存在内隐利他倾向,且自恋组的内隐利他倾向显著低于非自恋组;(2)自恋组的共情能力显著低于非自恋组,其中,自恋组在情绪共情上显著低于非自恋组被试,两组在认知共情上差异不显著;(3)共情诱发对自恋组被试的共情与内隐利他均有显著影响。启动条件下自恋组被试的共情水平与内隐利他倾向显著高于控制条件下自恋组被试,且达到与非自恋组被试相同的水平,而非自恋组被试的共情与内隐利他倾向在两种实验条件下差异不显著;(4)共情诱发显著提高了自恋组被试的情感而非认知共情水平。     

Priming and implicit recognition depend on similar temporal changes in perceptual representations

Previous studies have reported that longer stimulus presentation decreases the magnitude of priming. In the present study, we used meaningless kaleidoscope images, which were reported to minimize conceptual processing, to investigate the mechanism of the phenomenon. We assessed the impact of stimulus duration on perceptual priming (Experiment 1) and implicit recognition memory (Experiment 2). Both the magnitude of priming and the accuracy of implicit recognition were lower with the longer stimulus presentation (350 ms) compared with the shorter presentation (250 ms). This coincidence of temporal dynamics between priming and implicit recognition suggests similar underlying memory mechanisms. In both cases, the decrease of performance with longer presentation can be explained by either changes in perceptual processes or interference from explicit memory retrieval.     

Gender differences in implicit prejudice

In three experiments (n=131), we examined gender differences in implicit (and explicit) racial prejudice employing priming of immigrant and Swedish facial photographs without attention or without awareness. Implicit prejudice was defined as the degree of negativity expressed toward a person described in a subsequent ambiguous story in an impression formation task. We found, contrary to our hypothesis, that women displayed systematically higher implicit prejudice than men in all three experiments, although men scored higher on explicit prejudice than women. The results are discussed against the background of related prejudice research, the dissociation of implicit and explicit prejudice, and gender differences in cognitive functioning, especially in the processing of pictorial stimuli.     

Nonintentional task set activation: Evidence from implicit task sequence learning

Studies have shown that task sets could be configured endogenously (i.e., on the basis of memory) according to an explicit sequence or exogenously according to a task cue. In two experiments, we examined whether an implicitly learned sequence could facilitate task set configuration without participants’ intention. These experiments led to opposite conclusions regarding this question, but their methodology made it impossible to distinguish between the interpretations. We altered the task-switching paradigm by embedding a hidden task sequence, while randomizing all other aspects, including perceptual (i.e., task cues) and motor elements. We found that a sequence of tasks, proper, was learned implicitly and that the memory of that sequence endogenously facilitated task decision processes without the participants’ explicit knowledge.     

Applying an exemplar model to an implicit rule-learning task: Implicit learning of semantic structure

Studies of implicit learning often examine peoples’ sensitivity to sequential structure. Computational accounts have evolved to reflect this bias. An experiment conducted by Neil and Higham [Neil, G. J., & Higham, P. A.(2012). Implicit learning of conjunctive rule sets: An alternative to artificial grammars. Consciousness and Cognition, 21, 1393–1400] points to limitations in the sequential approach. In the experiment, participants studied words selected according to a conjunctive rule. At test, participants discriminated rule-consistent from rule-violating words but could not verbalize the rule. Although the data elude explanation by sequential models, an exemplar model of implicit learning can explain them. To make the case, we simulate the full pattern of results by incorporating vector representations for the words used in the experiment, derived from the large-scale semantic space models LSA and BEAGLE, into an exemplar model of memory, MINERVA 2. We show that basic memory processes in a classic model of memory capture implicit learning of non-sequential rules, provided that stimuli are appropriately represented.     

Evidence for the underestimation of implicit in-group favoritism among low-status groups

We question the evidence and the reasoning underlying recent research suggesting that members of low-status groups often fail to show in-group favoritism at the implicit level. Specifically, we argue the predominant measure revealing this pattern of group attitudes (the IAT) is influenced by extrapersonal associations, just the sort of information that would lead low-status groups to appear not to prefer their in-group. In the research reported here, respondents from low-status groups (African-Americans in Study 1 and homosexual males in Study 2) exhibited no in-group favoritism on the standard IAT, replicating previous research. However, reliable in-group favoritism by members of both groups was revealed on a personalized IAT [Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2004). Reducing the influence of extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 653-667] that reduces extrapersonal influences. We also rule out the possibility that differential error rates can account for the different patterns observed on the two versions of the IAT.     

I’m OK,I’m OK: Praise makes narcissists with low implicit self-esteem indifferent to the suffering of others

In two experiments (Ns = 105 and 49) the most grandiose individuals with the lowest implicit self-esteem became particularly callous toward their suffering peers after receiving praise about their own personality attributes. Self-reported grandiosity belied by low implicit self-esteem reflects the classic view of narcissism as defensive pride that masks less conscious shame or self-doubt (cf., Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, Hoshino-Browne, & Correll, 2003). Results support the classic view of narcissism and reveal that narcissistic disregard for others can be precipitated by praise.     

Mindfulness reduces habitual responding based on implicit knowledge: Evidence from artificial grammar learning

Participants were unknowingly exposed to complex regularities in a working memory task. The existence of implicit knowledge was subsequently inferred from a preference for stimuli with similar grammatical regularities. Several affective traits have been shown to influence AGL performance positively, many of which are related to a tendency for automatic responding. We therefore tested whether the mindfulness trait predicted a reduction of grammatically congruent preferences, and used emotional primes to explore the influence of affect. Mindfulness was shown to correlate negatively with grammatically congruent responses. Negative primes were shown to result in faster and more negative evaluations. We conclude that grammatically congruent preference ratings rely on habitual responses, and that our findings provide empirical evidence for the non-reactive disposition of the mindfulness trait.     

How to like yourself better, or chocolate less: Changing implicit attitudes with one IAT task

The current paper introduces a novel feature of implicit association tests (IATs) by demonstrating their potential to change implicit attitudes. We assume that such changes are driven by associative learning mechanisms caused by carrying out an IAT task. Currently, evaluative conditioning appears to be the only widespread paradigm for changing implicit attitudes. An IAT task could provide an alternative. In two experiments, participants initially reacted to only one IAT task. Implicit preferences subsequently assessed with different implicit measures depended on the initial IAT task. This was shown for implicit self-esteem and for implicit attitudes towards well-known candy brands. Findings are discussed in relation to task-order effects in IATs.     

Questioning implicit motor learning as instantiated by the pursuit-tracking task

The effect of concurrent visual feedback on the implicit learning of repeated segments in a task of pursuit tracking has been tested. Although this feedback makes it possible to regulate the positional error during the movement, it could also induce negative guidance effects. To test this hypothesis, a first set of participants (N?=?42) were assigned to two groups, which performed either the standard pursuit-tracking task based on the experimental paradigm of Pew (1974 Pew, R. W. 1974. Levels of analysis in motor control. Brain Research, 71: 393–400. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; group F-ST), or a task called “movement reproduction” in which the feedback was suppressed (group noF-ST). A second set of participants (N?=?26) performed in the same feedback condition groups but in a dual-task situation (F-DT and noF-DT; Experiment 2). The results appear to confirm our predictions since the participants in groups without feedback, contrary to those in groups with feedback, succeeded with practice in differentiating their performances as a function of the nature of the segments (repeated or nonrepeated) both in simple (Experiment 1) and in dual-task (Experiment 2) situations. These experiments indicate that the feedback in the pursuit-tracking task induces a guidance function potentially resulting in an easiness tracking that prevents the participants from learning the repetition.     

Inattentional blindness for ignored words: Comparison of explicit and implicit memory tasks

Inattentional blindness is described as the failure to perceive a supra-threshold stimulus when attention is directed away from that stimulus. Based on performance on an explicit recognition memory test and concurrent functional imaging data Rees, Russell, Frith, and Driver [Rees, G., Russell, C., Frith, C. D., & Driver, J. (1999). Inattentional blindness versus inattentional amnesia for fixated but ignored words. Science, 286, 2504–2507] reported inattentional blindness for word stimuli that were fixated but ignored. The present study examined both explicit and implicit memory for fixated but ignored words using a selective-attention task in which overlapping picture/word stimuli were presented at fixation. No explicit awareness of the unattended words was apparent on a recognition memory test. Analysis of an implicit memory task, however, indicated that unattended words were perceived at a perceptual level. Thus, the selective-attention task did not result in perfect filtering as suggested by Rees et al. While there was no evidence of conscious perception, subjects were not blind to the implicit perceptual properties of fixated but ignored words.     

Modeling implicit learning in a cross-modal audio-visual serial reaction time task

This study examined implicit learning in a cross-modal condition, where visual and auditory stimuli were presented in an alternating fashion. Each cross-modal transition occurred with a probability of 0.85, enabling participants to gain a reaction time benefit by learning the cross-modal predictive information between colors and tones. Motor responses were randomly remapped to ensure that pure perceptual learning took place. The effect for the implicit learning was extracted from the data by fitting five different models to the data, which was highly variable due to motor variability. To examine individual learning rates for stimulus types of different discriminability and modality, the models were fitted per stimulus type and individually for each participant. The model selection identified the model that included motor variability, surprise effects for deviants and a serial position for effect onset as the most explanatory (Akaike weight 0.87). Further, there was a significant global cross-modal implicit learning effect for predictable versus deviant transitions (40 ms reaction time difference, p < 0.004). The learning rates over time differed for both modality and the stimuli within modalities, although there was no correlation to global error rates or reaction time differences between the stimulus types. These results demonstrate a modeling method that is well suited to extract detailed information about the success of implicit learning from high variability data. It further shows a cross-modal implicit learning effect, which extends the understanding of the implicit learning system and highlights the possibility for information to be processed in a cross-modal representation without conscious processing.     

Dissociations between implicit and explicit memory in children: the role of strategic processing and the knowledge base

A review of the literature shows that explicit memory develops substantially from three years of age to adulthood, while implicit memory remains stable across this age range. Previously, this developmental dissociation has been attributed to different memory systems, or to confounds with perceptual vs. conceptual processing. Prompted by an alternative developmental framework, the experiments reported here provide evidence against both interpretations. Instead, it will be argued that (a) the implicit-explicit developmental dissociation reflects differences in strategic processing (strategy use and metamemory) across childhood and (b) that implicit memory can show development if a child's knowledge base in the tested domain is developing with age.     

Applying an exemplar model to the artificial-grammar task: Inferring grammaticality from similarity

We present three artificial-grammar experiments. The first used position constraints, and the second used sequential constraints. The third varied both the amount of training and the degree of sequential constraint. Increasing both the amount of training and the redundancy of the grammar benefited participants' ability to infer grammatical status; nevertheless, they were unable to describe the grammar. We applied a multitrace model of memory to the task. The model used a global measure of similarity to assess the grammatical status of the probe and captured performance both in our experiments and in three classic studies from the literature. The model shows that retrieval is sensitive to structure in memory, even when individual exemplars are encoded sparsely. The work ties an understanding of performance in the artificial-grammar task to the principles used to understand performance in episodic-memory tasks.     

How attribution influences aggression: Answers to an old question by using an implicit measure of anger

The present study investigated how aggressive reactions to frustration are influenced by attributional processes. In particular, we examined how the information that another person did not intend a frustration affects anger and aggression. Previous research was inconclusive if attribution to unintentionality decreases anger and aggressive impulses or if it increases the control of aggressive impulses resulting in a selective decrease of aggressive reactions that are controllable. To test these assumptions, two thirds of participants were frustrated by negative evaluations that were paired with aversive sounds from an ostensible team partner. The remaining participants received positive evaluations that were paired with pleasant sounds. Then, half of the frustrated participants obtained a message suggesting that their partner had confused the response scale and had actually meant to deliver an opposite evaluation. This apologizing information was effective in decreasing subsequent aggressive behavior but not in reducing anger as assessed by an implicit measure. This finding is in line with the notion that attribution to unintentionality leads to control of aggressive impulses. We conclude that such attributions influence aggressive behavior mainly via reflective pathways, while impulsive processes remain largely unaffected.     

Motivated but not engaged: The implicit achievement motive requires difficult or unclear task difficulty conditions to exert an impact on effort

Integrating the achievement motive literature and motivational intensity theory, we expected the implicit achievement motive (nAch) to directly determine effort mobilization when task difficulty is unclear. However, nAch should interact with task difficulty in determining effort mobilization when task difficulty is clear. Participants worked on an easy versus difficult memory task (Study 1) or a clear versus unclear arithmetic task (Study 2). We used the Picture-Story-Exercise to assess nAch and pre-ejection period (PEP) to operationalize effort. As predicted, PEP reactivity was strong in the difficult-high-nAch condition and in the unclear-high-nAch condition but low in the other three conditions. Supporting motivational intensity theory, our results showed that nAch requires difficult or unclear task conditions to exert a noticeable impact on effort.     

Study-test awareness can enhance priming on an implicit memory task: evidence from a word completion task

The role of study-test awareness in implicit memory tasks has been an open question for some time. This study investigated the possibility that study-test awareness may enhance priming on an implicit memory task. In three experiments, subjects studied words under levels of processing conditions (nonsemantic vs. semantic) and then received a word stem completion priming task. The results of all three experiments showed that study-test awareness had no effect on priming for nonsemantic study but it did on semantic study, significantly enhancing priming for that study condition. The results are interpreted according to an involuntary aware memory framework.     

Word form encoding in mandarin Chinese typewritten word production: Evidence from the implicit priming task

Employing the implicit priming task, we examined whether Chinese words that shared the initial onset consonant could be typed, using the phonetic-based method (called zhuyin), with faster response times than words that did not share the initial onset consonant. We also examined the effect of sharing the initial tonal syllable. A significant onset preparation effect and a significant syllable preparation effect were both observed. The latter was found to vary linearly with the number of segments in the syllable. The slope of 63 ms was similar to the 70-ms onset effect, suggesting that the syllable effect was segment-based. The results contrasted with the lack of an onset effect previously reported for speaking, and were interpreted as supporting the output constraint hypothesis which states that the kind of outputs a production system is designed to produce (speaking vs. typing) can flexibly and adaptively alter the way the system is organized and operates.     

Validation of an implicit measure of antagonistic narcissism

Narcissism has traditionally been assessed using explicit measures, yet contemporary measures are limited in their ability to capture people’s automatic (i.e., implicit) self-evaluations. Here, we propose the antagonistic narcissism Implicit Association Test (AN-IAT). Three studies (N = 1082) using self-, informant-reports, and other implicit measures tested the psychometric properties of the AN-IAT. The AN-IAT showed high internal consistency and good temporal stability. The measure was positively associated with (antagonistic) narcissism, aggression, and lack of empathy, but unrelated to communal, pathological, and agentic narcissism as well as self-esteem. The AN-IAT predicted self- and informant-ratings of aggression and empathy beyond self-reports of antagonistic and agentic narcissism, and agreeableness. Together, the antagonistic narcissism IAT is a promising addition to the assessment of narcissism.     

Cross-cultural differences in mental representations of time: evidence from an implicit nonlinguistic task

Across cultures people construct spatial representations of time. However, the particular spatial layouts created to represent time may differ across cultures. This paper examines whether people automatically access and use culturally specific spatial representations when reasoning about time. In Experiment 1, we asked Hebrew and English speakers to arrange pictures depicting temporal sequences of natural events, and to point to the hypothesized location of events relative to a reference point. In both tasks, English speakers (who read left to right) arranged temporal sequences to progress from left to right, whereas Hebrew speakers (who read right to left) arranged them from right to left, replicating previous work. In Experiments 2 and 3, we asked the participants to make rapid temporal order judgments about pairs of pictures presented one after the other (i.e., to decide whether the second picture showed a conceptually earlier or later time-point of an event than the first picture). Participants made responses using two adjacent keyboard keys. English speakers were faster to make "earlier" judgments when the "earlier" response needed to be made with the left response key than with the right response key. Hebrew speakers showed exactly the reverse pattern. Asking participants to use a space-time mapping inconsistent with the one suggested by writing direction in their language created interference, suggesting that participants were automatically creating writing-direction consistent spatial representations in the course of their normal temporal reasoning. It appears that people automatically access culturally specific spatial representations when making temporal judgments even in nonlinguistic tasks.