Tool use and the effect of action on the imagination

Three studies examined the claim that hand movements can facilitate imagery for object rotations but that this facilitation depends on people's model of the situation. In Experiment 1, physically turning a block without vision reduced mental rotation times compared with imagining the same rotation without bodily movement. In Experiment 2, pulling a string from a spool facilitated participants' mental rotation of an object sitting on the spool. In Experiment 3, depending on participants' model of the spool, the exact same pulling movement facilitated or interfered with the exact same imagery transformation. Results of Experiments 2 and 3 indicate that the geometric characteristics of an action do not specify the trajectory of an imagery transformation. Instead, they point to people's ability to model the tools that mediate between motor activity and its environmental consequences and to transfer tool knowledge to a new situation.     

The labtop Macintosh: An interface and communications software for experiment control of animal learning research

A peripheral interface and communications software are described that allow the Macintosh Plus microcomputer to control experiments in animal learning. A Walter/Palya experiment control board (ECB; Walter & Palya, 1984), connected to the Macintosh by a RS-232 modem cable, operates as the I/O interface. The Hayes-Smartcom II software provides an easily operated communications link through menu and icon commands. Smartcom II allows the Macintosh to transmit experiment control tasks to the ECB and to collect and store obtained data. Network communication over a single RS-232 modem cable is also described.     

PROGRAM SELECTION WITH ABUNDANCE OF CHOICE

A model of program choice focusing on the decision-making process is developed and applied to cable television viewing. The process concepts of orienting search (becoming aware of alternatives to watch) and revaluation (reconsidering a choice) are found to be positively correlated with channel familiarity (awarensss of available cable channels) and channel repertoire (use of cable channels). Viewers appear to have their own routine means of choosing what to watch that vary according to personality characteristics and demographics. Young, male adults with a high need for stimulation engage in more active choice processes.     

Activity anorexia: An interplay between basic and applied behavior analysis

The relationship between basic research with nonhumans and applied behavior analysis is illustrated by our work on activity anorexia. When rats are fed one meal a day and allowed to run on an activity wheel, they run excessively, stop eating, and die of starvation. Convergent evidence, from several different research areas, indicates that the behavior of these animals and humans who self-starve is functionally similar. A biobehavioral theory of activity anorexia is presented that details the cultural contingencies, behavioral processes, and physiology of anorexia. Diagnostic criteria and a three-stage treatment program for activity-based anorexia are outlined. The animal model permits basic research on anorexia that for practical and ethical reasons cannot be conducted with humans. Thus, basic research can have applied importance.     

A microwave doppler radar activity monitor

The general requirements of an activity monitor are listed. The principle of operation of microwave doppler radar is described. The circuitry is given for a sensitive radar activity monitor that works by detecting the doppler shift in microwaves reflected from a moving animal. The apparatus is automatic and nonintrusive, and it gives an output suitable for direct computer analysis. A high level of concordance is found with manual observation. A simple means of calibrating the device is described.     

Protopopov's ideas on habit formation and their relation to the Pavlovian theory of higher nervous activity

In 1929 Viktor P. Protopopov began to replicate E. L. Thorndike's animal experiments on habit acquisition. To determine the conditions necessary for habit formation, Protopopov used the natural experiment method, in which dogs encountered environments that prevented them from reaching a stimulus-bait. Not all dogs acquired the behavior necessary for obtaining the bait. Explaining the results within the framework of the Pavlovian theory of higher nervous activity, Protopopov concluded that habits were acquired when an active animal provoked by a bait-stimulus encountered an environmental barrier. The dogs tried a series of phylogenetic behaviors until the stimulus-bait was reached. The latter movements were retained, forming an ontogenetic habit. The dogs also learned not to produce the unsuccessful movements. In accord with the Pavlovian theory, individual differences in habit formation were related to temperament types. A critique of the Thorndikian Law of Effect is provided in terms of the Pavlovian theory of higher nervous activity.     

Automation of mazes and shuttleboxes

Automation of the movement of doors in mazes and shuttleboxes may be readily achieved by a simple modification to apparatus commonly found in laboratory settings. Using a commercial timer module fitted with a “take-up” spool, a simple pulley may be arranged to lift and lower doors to permit and/or restrict access to certain areas of mazes and shuttleboxes, obviating experimenter handling.     

An object-oriented simulation of anorexia based on brain structure interaction

A computer simulation using an object-oriented strategy was developed to model brain mechanisms that underlie eating disorders. The simulation was based on neuroanatomical and neurochemical evidence from published literature. Testing of the simulation required that the activity levels of the raphe nuclei of the brain stem be altered and the resulting activity levels of associated brain structures be compared with results from human and animal data. The results supported the serotonin hypothesis of anorexia that increasing the activity level of the raphe nuclei would result in dramatic changes in the activity level of the paraventricular nucleus. The findings are discussed with respect to the feasibility of computer simulations to test theories of brain-based disorders.     

Television Use,Sexual Behavior,and Relationship Status at Last Oral Sex and Vaginal Intercourse

The current longitudinal study explores the relationship between adolescent television use at time 1 and sexual experience and relationship status (i.e., committed/romantic versus casual) 1 year later. The sample (N = 824) comprised youth aged 14–18. Multinomial logistic regressions predicting group membership from television exposure variables were conducted controlling for socio-demographic characteristics and prior sexual behavior. Results indicate that sexually inexperienced youth watched more television overall than sexually experienced youth, but less adult, premium and music television on cable networks. Premium cable exposure predicted group membership among sexually active youth. Youth who watched more premium cable at time 1 were more likely to be in casual relationship at last intercourse than a committed one. A more complete understanding of media effects on adolescent sexual relationships can help guide policy development, media education/literacy efforts, and contribute to the design of interventions to reduce the negative consequences associated with adolescent sexual behavior.     

Lifespan brain activity, β-amyloid, and Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of progressive cognitive decline and dementia in adults. While the amyloid cascade hypothesis of AD posits an initiating role for the β-amyloid (Aβ) protein, there is limited understanding of why Aβ is deposited. A growing body of evidence based on in vitro, animal studies and human imaging work suggests that synaptic activity increases Aβ, which is deposited preferentially in multimodal brain regions that show continuous levels of heightened activation and plasticity across the lifespan. Imaging studies of people with genetic predispositions to AD are consistent with these findings, suggesting a mechanism whereby neural efficiency or cognitive reserve may diminish Aβ deposition. The aggregated findings unify observations from cellular and molecular studies with human cognitive neuroscience to reveal potential mechanisms of AD development.     

Sensitivity to low doses of ethanol and pentobarbital in mice selected for sensitivity to hypnotic doses of ethanol.

These experiments assessed sensitivity to low doses of ethanol and pentobarbital in mice that had been selectively bred with respect to ethanol sleep time (the length of time an animal remains on its back following a hypnotic dose of ethanol). The hypothesis under investigation was that short-sleep (SS) mice might be more sensitive than long-sleep (LS) mice to excitatory effects produced by low doses of depressants. In support of this hypothesis SS mice were more active in an open-field test after ethanol than were LS mice. The lines did not differ in performance on a rotating-rod apparatus after these same doses of ethanol, suggesting that the difference in open-field activity was not attributable to a greater impairment of locomotor activity in LS mice. A similar difference in the open-field activity of the selected lines was observed with pentobarbital.     

A TV monitored system for recording open-field activity in the rat

A system for monitoring and recording the movements of a rodent in an open field is described. A TV camera and a grid generator combine the animal’s position in the field with an overlaid 16 by 16 grid pattern. These are displayed on the TV monitor. The location of the animal is recorded with each sweep of the video raster. The movement of the animal is then plotted by a Rockwell microprocessor that prints out the animal’s location at set intervals.     

Neural basis of cutaneous sensations analyzed by microelectrode measurements from human peripheral nerves—a review

Abstract.— A new approach to neural mechanisms of cutaneous sensations is evaluated. In this approach unit activity is recorded from human peripheral nerves with simultaneous measurements of cutaneous sensations. The method is described and some methodological problems are discussed. Comparison of the data on physiological properties of human and animal cutaneous receptors indicates that no marked differences exist between the receptors in the two species. The data on simultaneous measurements of peripheral neural activity and cutaneous sensations are reviewed. It is indicated that in spite of some limitations, microelectrode measurements from human peripheral nerves give a fruitful starting point for the investigation of the neural basis of cutaneous sensations.     

Micro-analysis of infant looking in a naturalistic social setting: insights from biologically based models of attention

A current theory of attention posits that several micro-indices of attentional vigilance are dependent on activation of the locus coeruleus, a brainstem nucleus that regulates cortical norepinephrine activity (Aston-Jones et al., 1999). This theory may account for many findings in the infant literature, while highlighting important new areas for research and theory on infant attention. We examined the visual behaviors of n = 16 infants (6-7 months) while they attended to multiple spatially distributed targets in a naturalistic environment. We coded four measures of attentional vigilance, adapted from studies of norepinergic modulation of animal attention: rate of fixations, duration of fixations, latency to reorientation, and target 'hits'. These measures showed a high degree of coherence in individual infants, in parallel with findings from animal studies. Results also suggest that less vigilant infants showed greater habituation to the trial structure and more attentiveness to less salient stimuli during periods of high attentional competition. This pattern of results is predicted by the Aston-Jones model of attention, but could not be explained by the standard information processing model.     

Sick-building syndrome fatigue as a possible predation defense

Sick-building syndrome is an illness characterized by fatigue, headache, and upper-respiratory complaints. It is usually associated with modern office buildings, structures with an impervious outer shell and inoperable windows. Poor air quality, specific pollutants, and inadequate ventilation are considered common causes. The ability to smell faint odors requires air that is free of contamination. Human evolutionary ancestors depended on odors for survival. Even the slightest increase in the ability to smell a predator conveyed a distinct, immediate survival advantage. Conversely, an enormous survival advantage would also accrue to the animal that sought protection or avoided activity when this vital olfactory information was unavailable. Such would be the case with fire on the savannah. The foraging, olfactory dependent animal, unable to smell predators because of contaminated air, would be quickly snatched by a keen-sighted carnivore. There exist, however, well-described reflexes from the nose mediated through the trigeminal nerve that discourage activity when these free nerve endings are irritated. This mechanism may serve as a defense against predation. In adulterated atmosphere the animal, subdued by these reflexes, would be less likely to venture forth and, therefore, less vulnerable to predators. Similar reflexes may persist in humans, activated by poor air quality, air ill-suited for the dissemination of odors. I suggest that the human perception of these inhibitory reflexes is the feeling of fatigue associated with the sick building syndrome.     

Religious Representation and Animal Welfare in the U.S. Senate

Does religion affect legislative behavior among U.S. senators? Scholars have established this relationship on issues closely associated with evangelical Christianity, but it is unclear how far the relationship extends. Focusing on animal welfare, this article tests the theory of personal representation and provides an expansion of the religion and legislative behavior literature. Humane Society scores (2005–2014) are regressed on senator religion, party, sex, and several constituency factors. The analysis demonstrates that religion shapes animal welfare activity. Relative to mainline Protestant senators, Mormon senators are less supportive of animal welfare, while Catholics, Jews, and black Protestants are more supportive. Some of this is due to senator religion, but it is also a reflection of state‐level factors, including state ideology and religious constituencies.     

Messages about sex in the workplace: A content analysis of primetime television

Because television has the potential to shape cultural beliefs about both sexual norms and appropriate workplace behavior, it seems important to examine TV’s portrayal of “sexual etiquette” in the workplace. In a content analysis of two episodes of every primetime comedy aired on all broadcast and cable networks during fall 2000, we coded every sexual remark and behavior made in a workplace scene. Across all networks, 85 percent of programs and one in four workplace interactions contained some type of sexual content. Overall, a viewer is likely to hear eleven sexual remarks and see two to three sexual behaviors in a workplace setting per hour; this jumps to twenty-three remarks and nine behaviors on cable networks. Sexual remarks were mostly explicit, made in an office setting, by White men, and were rarely (1.4%) about sexual harassment or discrimination. Although sexual content in the workplace was generally less common on broadcast than cable networks, a broadcast network (Fox) actually had the highest overall rate, with sexual content in 38 percent of workplace scenes. Given that research suggests that TV teaches youth about sexuality and cultivates sexual attitudes and beliefs consistent with televised portrayals, it is alarming that youth may learn from television that sex in the workplace is not only commonplace, but also to be tolerated and enjoyed.     

A device for measuring patterns of locomotor behavior in the earthworm

A simple device capable of eliciting and detecting earthworm locomotor activity is described and its use outlined. Movement is recorded as an animal crawls in a spoked, revolving wheel. The wheel permits peristaltic crawling, yet restricts the type and timing of other movements. As a result, records of activity differentiate the rate and patterning of peristaltic crawling from changes in bodily position.     

Why do people perform thrilling activities? A study based on reversal theory

The present study was aimed at testing the assumption based on reversal theory, according to which people perform frightening activities to induce high anxiety, which in turn can give rise to pleasant excitement, provided that a metamotivational reversal occurs. The Tension and Effort Stress Inventory was administered to 46 individuals just before and just after a frightening ride on a cable (Fantasticable). A 30-subject control group was given the same inventory in a safe context, with a 2-min. rest between the two periods of completion. Ratings of Tension Stress, Anxiety, and overall Unpleasant Emotions were significantly decreased after the ride for the Fantasticable group. Conversely, significant increases in Preferred Arousal, Excitement, Transactional Emotions, and overall Pleasant Emotions were found after the ride. Also, pre-activity anxiety correlated with postactivity excitement (r = .79) for the Fantasticable group only. This supports the reversal theory contention about how one's involvement in arousal-seeking leisure may improve one's emotional state. No time effect was noted in the ratings for the control group, suggesting an association of participation in a frightening activity and emotional enhancement.     

The Impact of Environmental,Social, and Animal Factors on Visitor Stay Times at Big Cat Exhibits

ABSTRACT

An accurate understanding of visitor interest is critical to the education and conservation missions of zoos. However, studies that consider multiple influences are rare, and measures such as stay time that have been used to measure visitor interest vary widely, making broader inferences challenging. The authors sought to (a) compare the relative influences of social interactions, animal behavior, environmental factors, and animal species on visitor stay time and (b) evaluate how conclusions vary depending on the metric of stay time used. They conducted 701 direct observations of zoo visitors at a big cat exhibit. The data suggest that animal visibility was a critical factor driving stay time. Animal species played a minor role. The relative importance of the number of other visitors present and animal activity level differed depending on the stay time metric used. Nine other factors examined were relatively unimportant in predicting stay time. These results have important implications for exhibit design, crowd flow management, animal husbandry, collection management, and educational programs in zoos.