TALK-SILENCE SEQUENCES IN INFORMAL CONVERSATIONS I

The literature relevant to talk and silence sequences in informal social conversations is reviewed in terms of individual consistency in talk and silence across and within conversations, the factors which can modify talk and silence consistencies, and the influence of partners’ talk and silence behaviors on the other's response. The review leads to the postulation of four models of talk-silence sequences of increasing complexity and decreasing parsimony. The Markov model describes within-conversation sequences; the Independent Decision (ID) model describes across-conversation sequences under the assumptions of perfect consistency and independence of action; the Incremental model relaxes the consistency assumption of the ID model; the Regulation model relaxes both assumptions of the ID model, incorporating the possibility of mutual influence between partners rather than independence.     

Trash talk in a competitive setting: Impact on self‐efficacy and affect

The effects of trash talk and competition outcome on self‐efficacy and affect were examined in 40 Madden? NFL 08 football video game players randomly assigned to two conditions: silence talk, where they played the first game in complete silence; and the second trash talking. Measures of self‐efficacy, positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA) were administered. Results revealed that players enforced to be silent in the first game instantaneously exhibited lower self‐efficacy, lower PA, and higher NA than players permitted to talk in Game 1. However, players subsequently instructed to remain silent in the second game showed markedly decreased self‐efficacy compared to players permitted to talk in Game 2. Results are interpreted in light of the social‐cognitive‐motivational theory.     

Apparatus for collecting voice chronography data

The conversion of speech into on-off pulse patteras representing talk spurts and pauses is a major tool used by psychologists in analyzing interactive communications behavior. We describe a conversion method and a means for interfacing its output with a computer, which allows the collection of large amounts of speech data from one or more sources. The major improvement over prior art is the ability to reject cross talk between neighbor speakers while permitting the detection of simultaneous speech. In the evaluation of the performance of the apparatus, no errors were detected for single-party speaking. Infrequent small errors occurred in the detection and duration of talk spurts and pauses during two- and three-party speaking, but these would probably be acceptable in most applications.     

“We Always Spend Time Together on Sundays”: How Grandparents and Their Grandchildren Think About and Use Informal Learning Spaces

ABSTRACT

Self-reflection is critical for visitors to make sense of an exhibit collection in which they are the subject of investigation and may play an important role in any informal learning context. This study examines this construct by listening for self-reflective talk at Mind, an exhibit collection focused on helping visitors explore aspects of themselves rather than external objects or phenomena. It addresses 3 questions: (a) What does self-reflective talk sound like in such a collection? (b) What categories of self-reflective talk are prevalent? (c) What types of exhibits engender what categories of self-reflective talk? Findings indicate that self-reflective talk comes in various forms. Self-monitoring talk, including self-assessments about how visitors are feeling and doing and what they know, is more prevalent than self-connecting talk, comments about visitors’ own lives, values, and their sense of self. Comparisons among different types of exhibits suggest that exhibits designed for multiple users prompt high frequencies of self-connecting talk and self-monitoring talk, whereas interactive exhibits and exhibits that pose a challenge elicit high frequencies of self-monitoring but not self-connecting talk. Additional work is needed to better understand self-reflection, its role in informal learning, and effective means of fostering self-reflection in science museums.     

TALK AND SILENCE SEQUENCES IN INFORMAL CONVERSATIONS II

Three models describing the structure of talk and silence sequences within and across conversations presented in a previous report (Cappella, 1979) are tested. The Markov model, describing talk and silence sequences within a conversation, is found to be a valid representation on a dyad-by-dyad basis. The Independent Decision (ID) model shows some predictive validity between conversations, although its “fit” within the conversation is less than the Markov model. The Incremental model in relaxing the consistency-across-conversation assumption of the ID model finds differences due to switching of partners in the probability of breaking or continuing mutual silences and in the probability of continuing to hold the floor. The implication for deriving dyadic interaction patterns from individual interaction styles are explored.     

Male/Female Gaze in Same-Sex and Mixed-Sex Dyads Gender-Linked Differences and Mutual Influence

In this study, 108 university students (54 men and 54 women) were each videotaped in two 8-minute problem-solving dyadic interactions: (1) same-sex, and (2) mixed-sex. Trained observers coded the interactions for simultaneous, moment-to-moment gaze and talk behavior of both interactants. MANOVA results for three dyad types (male/male, female/female, and male/female) measured on 10 dyad gaze/talk variables showed that F/F dyads exhibited more mutual gaze/mutual talk and mutual gaze/mutual silence than either M/M or M/F dyads. F/F dyads exhibited less one gazes/same talks and mutual avert/one talks than either M/M or M/F dyads. No differences were found between M/M and M/F dyads on any variable. Analyses of individual change scores from same-sex to mixed-sex dyads indicated that the women in the M/F dyads converged to the male behavior in that dyad condition, whereas the men remained unchanged. The results are discussed in terms of speech accommodation theory.     

Employees' reactions to psychological contract breach: A moderated mediation analysis

This study examined the mediating role of acquiescent silence in the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee job satisfaction, as well as the moderating roles of perceived ethical climate on that relationship and on the mediation effect of acquiescent silence. Survey data were collected from a sample of 273 full-time employees from nine high-tech firms in Taiwan. The results showed that acquiescent silence partially mediated the relationship between psychological contract breach and job satisfaction. Moreover, the results from the moderation analysis showed that perceived ethical climate moderated the influence of psychological contract breach on acquiescent silence and the results from the moderated mediation analysis revealed that this mediation of acquiescent silence was moderated by perceived ethical climate such that at the lower level of perceived ethical climate, the mediation effect of acquiescent silence became stronger. Implications for managerial practices and suggestions for future research were discussed.     

A dark talent: silence in analysis

This paper is presented jointly by two analysts who have worked with patients whose silence stretched over years. They taxed our professional selves and our therapeutic repertoire of responses and techniques to the limit. Partly in response to these experiences, each analyst found herself needing to talk with another who could verify disturbing countertransference reactions from the standpoint of similar experience. The patients' (largely silent) attacks on analysis and their inability to use it conventionally constellated the need in us to talk, in an effort to relieve projected anxiety. Our conversations provided some containment of the destructive fantasies which we found developing in response to lack of verbal interaction with our patients. Unlike patients who project into an analyst in the unconscious hope of finding containment, silent patients project the need for containment, which they then disavow, leaving the analyst carrying the need, and feeling helpless, baffled and undermined in their therapeutic identity (Colman, private communication). In keeping with the theme of this conference, we found that our collaboration about what chronic analytic silence may mean helped to counteract its destructive effect on the analyst-patient relationship     

员工为何沉默:领导权力距离倾向与员工调控焦点的跨层次交互作用

基于跨层次的调节-中介模型,检验了员工沉默的影响因素、中介变量及作用边界。来自82个团队447名员工的数据表明:(1)领导权力距离倾向与员工沉默行为显著正相关。在这一关系中,建言有用感起完全中介作用,心理安全感起部分中介作用,且控制建言有用感后,心理安全感的中介效应不再显著;(2)员工的促进焦点会增强"权力距离倾向→建言有用感→沉默行为"间接效应,防御焦点会减弱"权力距离倾向→心理安全感→沉默行为"间接效应。结论有助于揭示员工沉默的产生机制。     

A Comparison of Interactions Among Children,Parents, and Therapists in Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Anxiety Disorders in Australia and Japan

Despite growing attention to the efficacy of culturally adapted cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) programs for children and adolescents, there is still little empirical and practical information available to therapists who adapt original treatment protocols to suit clients of a specific culture. The current study aimed to compare therapeutic interactions across CBT treatment delivered with two different cultural groups. We developed an observational coding system to examine behaviors exhibited by child, parent, and therapist during CBT sessions conducted in Australia and Japan for children with anxiety disorders. Our results demonstrated significant differences between the two countries with respect to the treatment readiness of children, the proportion of talking during the sessions by parents and children, therapists’ laughter, length of silence during the first session, and parent indices of accommodation. In terms of transitions over time (i.e., first to last CBT session), parents in both countries tended to talk more during the last CBT session, whereas only Australian therapists talked less over time. The proportion of silence decreased over time during the Japanese sessions, and the amount of interruptions by parents increased over time for Australian sessions. Finally, our exploratory analyses demonstrated that a number of behavioral observations were correlated with anxiety treatment outcome at posttreatment. This study suggests that interactions between a child, parent, and therapist during CBT sessions may be affected by the culture in which the CBT session occurs, which could have implications for culturally adapted CBT programs.     

‘Making’ as a catalyst for reflective practice

Within the research and teaching program of maker pedagogy(TM), this study analyzes how teacher candidates construct knowledge about teaching and teaching with technology. The study applies an experiential-intuitive framework of reflective practice and takes cues from critical thinking to analyze the participants’ interactions in a maker pedagogy lab. Schön’s conception of reflection drove the data collection and analysis of participants who were asked to reflect on their experiences gained in the maker pedagogy lab. The researchers argue that the maker pedagogy lab provides participants with a way to understand their teaching practice. The results demonstrate that the maker projects enabled teacher candidates to engage in exploratory and hypothetical talk about how they are thinking about teaching and learning, particularly with technology. Furthermore, the researchers uncovered that teacher candidates’ prior knowledge and frames of reference affect their making experiences and their developing identities as science and technology teachers.     

The behaviour of children during a first encounter

Abstract.— The behaviour of unacquainted children in a two-child play situation was compared with the behaviour of well acquainted children. Observations were made through a one-way-screen, mainly in accord with categories adopted from ethological child studies. Tape-recorded speech was coded into 27 content categories. Choice of activity and content of play seemed to be determined mostly by the children's sex, whereas nonverbal acts and also some aspects of speech showed considerable differences between strangers and acquaintances. Looking at the other's face, gaze avoidance, immobility, and automanipulation were more frequent among unacquainted children, and walking was less frequent among them. Longer initial silence, smaller total verbal output, and scarcity of suggestions, orders, and negative reactions were characteristic of unacquainted children at the initial stage of meeting. Personal talk (telling about oneself and asking quesrions about the other) was more common among unacquainted children, especially girls.     

Identifying careless responses in survey data

When data are collected via anonymous Internet surveys, particularly under conditions of obligatory participation (such as with student samples), data quality can be a concern. However, little guidance exists in the published literature regarding techniques for detecting careless responses. Previously several potential approaches have been suggested for identifying careless respondents via indices computed from the data, yet almost no prior work has examined the relationships among these indicators or the types of data patterns identified by each. In 2 studies, we examined several methods for identifying careless responses, including (a) special items designed to detect careless response, (b) response consistency indices formed from responses to typical survey items, (c) multivariate outlier analysis, (d) response time, and (e) self-reported diligence. Results indicated that there are two distinct patterns of careless response (random and nonrandom) and that different indices are needed to identify these different response patterns. We also found that approximately 10%-12% of undergraduates completing a lengthy survey for course credit were identified as careless responders. In Study 2, we simulated data with known random response patterns to determine the efficacy of several indicators of careless response. We found that the nature of the data strongly influenced the efficacy of the indices to identify careless responses. Recommendations include using identified rather than anonymous responses, incorporating instructed response items before data collection, as well as computing consistency indices and multivariate outlier analysis to ensure high-quality data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

The Silent Treatment? Changes in patient emotional expression after silence

Psychotherapy can be an emotionally laden conversation, where both verbal and nonverbal interventions may impact the therapeutic process. Prior research has postulated mixed results regarding how clients emotionally react following a silence after the therapist is finished talking, potentially due to studying a limited range of silences with primarily qualitative and self-report methodologies. A quantitative exploration may illuminate new findings. Utilising research and automatic data processing from the field of linguistics, we analysed the full range of silence lengths (0.2–24.01 s), and measures of emotional expression—vocally encoded arousal and emotional valence from the works spoken—of 84 audio recordings of Motivational Interviewing sessions. We hypothesised that both the level and the variance of client emotional expression would change as a function of silence length; however, due to the mixed results in the literature, the direction of emotional change was unclear. We conducted a multilevel linear regression to examine how the level of client emotional expression changed across silence length, and an ANOVA to examine the variability of client emotional expression across silence lengths. Results of both analyses indicated that as silence length increased, emotional expression largely remained the same. Broadly, we demonstrated a weak connection between silence length and emotional expression, indicating no persuasive evidence that silence leads to client emotional processing and expression.     

Antecedents and Consequences of Awkward Silence A Replication Using Revised Lag Sequential Analysis

McLaughlin and Cody's (1982) study of antecedents and consequences of awkward silence is replicated in this study. McLaughlin and Cody concluded that behavioral sequences before silence in dyads with multiple silences were characterized by a pattern of minimal response by one participant. They also concluded that posts/fence sequences were characterized by the presence of question-answer adjacency pairs. Advances made in our understanding of lag sequential analysis (Allison & Liker, 1982; Morley, in press; Sackett, in press) since their study was conducted indicate that statistics other than those employed in their study are more appropriate. A study of the antecedents and consequences of silence for dyads with multiple silences is reported and analyzed using reuised lag sequential analysis. This study found that silences were preceded by minimal responses at lag 1 and followed by questions at lag 1. However, silences were not followed by answers at lag 2. Additionally, the significant dependencies between minimal responses and silence, and silence and questions accounted for only a very small amount of the variance. Thus, although statistically significant, these dependencies are not theoretically meaningful.     

工具主义伦理气氛对员工沉默行为的影响——犬儒主义和传统性的作用

基于社会控制理论,运用问卷调查法,通过分析308组配对数据,探讨工具主义伦理气氛对员工沉默行为的影响机制。结果发现:工具主义伦理气氛对沉默行为有正向作用;工具主义伦理气氛对犬儒主义有正向作用;犬儒主义在工具主义伦理气氛与沉默行为之间起部分中介作用;传统性调节了犬儒主义与沉默行为的关系,也调节了犬儒主义在工具主义伦理气氛与沉默行为关系的中介作用。     

中国背景下员工沉默的测量以及信任对其的影响

应用自行编制的员工沉默行为调查问卷,通过对928名被试的调查,对中国背景下员工沉默行为的结构维度进行了探讨。探索性因素分析结果表明,员工沉默由三个因素构成。三因素结构的结果在验证性因素分析中得到了证实。由此得到结论,员工沉默有三维结构：默许沉默、漠视沉默和防御沉默。以员工沉默的三个维度为因变量,以员工对上级和组织的信任为自变量进行回归分析,结果表明,员工对上级信任对员工沉默三个维度都有负面影响,而员工对组织信任对默许沉默和漠视沉默有负向影响,对防御沉默的影响并不显著     

Socialization of maths in the home environment: using voice recordings to study maths talk / Socialización de matemáticas en el hogar: uso de grabaciones de voz para estudiar conversaciones matemáticas

Abstract

This study examined conversations about maths (maths talk) between mothers and their preschoolers in the home setting. Naturalistic conversational data on 40 mother-child dyads from a Midwestern area in the United States were gathered using the Language ENvironment Analysis System (LENA). A sample of up to four hours of talk during shared meals for each dyad was transcribed, coded and analysed in terms of maths talk. The results showed that all mothers and children engaged in maths talk during the hours recorded, though the amount of maths talk varied from zero to 308 utterances per hour. The main types of maths input involved naming numbers, counting, using ordinal numbers and referring to numbers in the context of time. Most of the maths talk was initiated and dominated by mothers. The results of this study underscore the ways mothers socialize mathematics with their preschoolers in interactions during meals and provide support for the use of voice recordings to study maths input in the home environment.     

Emotional content of talk to the fetus and healthy coping behaviors during pregnancy

This study examined whether the emotional content of talk to the self and to the fetus were related to health behaviors and psychosocial factors during pregnancy. One hundred fifty-two third-trimester pregnant women attending childbirth preparation classes completed a survey containing the Intrapersonal Communication Questionnaire, which sampled spontaneous talk to the self (self-talk) and to the fetus (baby-talk), and which yielded ratings of emotional valence of talk quotations into positive, negative, neutral, and mixed categories; the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; and indices for life stress, social support, and consumption behaviors. Baby-talk was more positive whereas self-talk was more negative, or emotionally distressed. More mixed baby-talk occurred with more medicine consumption, and medicine consumption was also related to lower self-esteem and more life stress. More negative baby-talk occurred when cigarette and caffeine consumption was higher. Emotional content of maternal talk to the fetus might indicate development of maternal bonding, and specific emotional contents might be related to health-relevant coping behaviors, for example, consumption of cigarettes and caffeine. Clinical implications for maternal behaviors after birth are discussed.