Stressful situations in caregiving: relations between caregiver coping and well-being

We examined ways in which caregivers cope with stressful caregiving situations and the relations between coping strategies and caregivers' psychosocial well-being. Respondents were 58 family caregivers to patients discharged from a rehabilitation hospital. Caregivers identified a recent stressful event in caregiving and indicated strategies used to cope with this event. After controlling for patients' impairment level, analyses indicated that caregivers engaging in more escape-avoidance coping reported greater depression and more conflict in their personal relationships. Those using more positive reappraisal demonstrated greater positive affect. Younger caregivers, many of whom were women, used more avoidance strategies. Results have implications for therapeutic interventions with family caregivers.     

Israeli adolescents' coping strategies in relation to terrorist attacks

Exposure to terrorism seriously threatens the well-being of children and adolescents. Israeli citizens have witnessed massive ongoing terrorist attacks during the last few years. The present research, conducted among 330 Israeli adolescents, examined coping strategies in relation to terrorist attacks. We found that adolescents utilize more productive than non-productive coping strategies when dealing with terrorist attacks. Moreover, they rarely seek professional help. Male adolescents use more non-productive coping strategies and female adolescents seek more social support as a coping strategy. The impact of exposure to media reports and life satisfaction on adolescents' use of coping strategies is discussed, and potentially effective approaches to coping with terrorist attacks are proposed.     

Stressful events and coping responses among older adults in two sociocultural groups

In this study of the way 32 men and women between the ages of 60 to 90 coped with stressful situations, two instruments were used: the Life Experiences Survey and the Ways of Coping Checklist. Overall, health-related concerns were more frequently reported by older adults than any other stressful event. When coping responses were categorized according to four modes--intrapsychic, inaction, direct action, and information seeking--the Appalachian group was found to use the information-seeking mode; the Cherokee group, the intrapsychic mode. Significant differences were found between males and females in coping modes and life-stress categories. When groups were combined, significant correlations were noted between life stress, particularly health-related stress, and the coping modes of intrapsychic and information seeking.     

Immunity and health after bereavement in relation to coping

Coping was examined as an intervening variable between the stressor of bereavement and its effects on subjective health and immunity in thirty-nine recently bereaved Norwegian women. Coping was defined as: "positive response outcome expectancies". Data were collected approximately one month after the death of the husband, and twelve months thereafter. Data collected were: expected coping success (self-scoring), subjective health (UHI), anxiety and depression (GWB), and immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM, IgG) with components (C3, C4). Statistics were: frequencies, paired t -test, ANOVA, and MANOVA. Permissions and confidentiality were in accordance with the Helsinki-declaration. Coping was found to be related strongly to health and to health changes. Few relations were found between immunity and health. Coping, health, and anxiety and depression formed a triangle of interrelations. It was concluded that coping defined as "positive response outcome expectancies" may be a predictor of the adaptational outcome after a crisis.     

Dimensionality of coping and its relation to depression

The dimensionality of coping, as measured by 65 items from 3 commonly used instruments, and the relation of coping and stress to concurrent and future depression were studied in a community sample of 742 older (greater than or equal to 50 years old) adults. Measures of coping, stress, and depression were obtained at 2 time points over a 2-year period. Depression was assessed by symptom checklist and by diagnostic interview. Three coping factors--Cognitive Self-Control, Ineffective Escapism, and Solace Seeking--that had adequate psychometric properties and accounted for 25% of the total item variance were identified. Ineffective Escapism was associated with current depression and had a direct and interactive effect on future depression, exacerbating the negative impact of stress rather than acting as a buffer. Although Cognitive Self-Control was unrelated to either concurrent or future depression, Solace Seeking significantly buffered the effect of stress in predicting a future diagnosis of depression. Stress and initial depression level predicted both measures of future depression. Gender (being female) predicted the future diagnosis of depression but not the increase of depressive symptoms.     

Trait vulnerability and coping strategies in the transition to motherhood

Using a prospective design, we explored the role of approach and emotional/avoidance-coping strategies in the relations between dependent and self-critical trait vulnerabilities and postpartum depressive symptoms among first-time mothers. It was assumed that dependency and self-criticism associate with approach and emotional/ avoidance strategies respectively, and that approach-coping strategies moderate trait vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms after childbirth. One hundred forty-six first pregnancy participants were assessed during the third trimester of pregnancy and eight weeks postpartum. Dependency was found to associate positively with high approach and low emotional/avoidance-coping strategies, while self-criticism was found to correlate positively with high emotional/avoidance and low approachcoping strategies. In addition, approach-coping scores were found to moderate selfcritical trait vulnerability, reducing self-critical participants' depressive symptoms, thus confirming the coping effectiveness hypothesis. Results suggest that personality dispositions may affect the selection of coping processes, but that specific coping strategies are effective beyond personality characteristics, moderating the association between trait vulnerabilities and depressive symptoms. We propose a model in which self-criticism functions as vulnerability to depressive symptoms in the childbearing period. Our results illustrate the need to distinguish dependent and selfcritical personality traits, and point to the need to integrate personality and contextual factors in the study of childbirth depressive symptoms.     

Trait vulnerability and coping strategies in the transition to motherhood

Using a prospective design, we explored the role of approach and emotional/avoidance-coping strategies in the relations between dependent and self-critical trait vulnerabilities and postpartum depressive symptoms among first-time mothers. It was assumed that dependency and self-criticism associate with approach and emotional/ avoidance strategies respectively, and that approach-coping strategies moderate trait vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms after childbirth. One hundred forty-six first pregnancy participants were assessed during the third trimester of pregnancy and eight weeks postpartum. Dependency was found to associate positively with high approach and low emotional/avoidance-coping strategies, while self-criticism was found to correlate positively with high emotional/avoidance and low approachcoping strategies. In addition, approach-coping scores were found to moderate selfcritical trait vulnerability, reducing self-critical participants' depressive symptoms, thus confirming the coping effectiveness hypothesis. Results suggest that personality dispositions may affect the selection of coping processes, but that specific coping strategies are effective beyond personality characteristics, moderating the association between trait vulnerabilities and depressive symptoms. We propose a model in which self-criticism functions as vulnerability to depressive symptoms in the childbearing period. Our results illustrate the need to distinguish dependent and selfcritical personality traits, and point to the need to integrate personality and contextual factors in the study of childbirth depressive symptoms.     

Rural adolescent loneliness and coping strategies

The extent of loneliness of rural adolescents was investigated in relation to aspects of their self-esteem. The study sample consisted of 387 4-H children from rural Nebraska ranging in age from 8 to 20 years. Data were gathered using the Loneliness Inventory (Woodward, 1967), Bachman's (1970) Self-Esteem Scale, and the Coping Strategies Inventory (Woodward, 1987). It was found that rural adolescents have extremely high loneliness scores and that 10 of 12 self-esteem characteristics were significant at the .05 level in relation to loneliness scores. Resources and coping strategies used by the subjects to combat loneliness are provided and implications of the findings discussed.     

The relation between locus of control and coping in two contexts: age as a moderator variable

We examined the relation between locus of control and coping as moderated by age and context. A total of 96 adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults were administered Lazarus's Ways of Coping questionnaire, a situation-specific controllability measure, a defensive coping questionnaire, and Levenson's Internality, Powerfulness of Others, and Chance global locus of control scales for challenging and threatening contexts. Age moderated the relation between locus of control and coping. Internality was positively related to escape-avoidance, hostile reaction, and self-blame for younger individuals and negatively related for older adults. A belief in powerfulness of others was positively related to planful problem-solving and self-controlling in older adults and negatively related for younger individuals. Finally, a belief in chance was positively related to distancing and self-controlling for older adults and negatively related for younger individuals. The implication that dimensions of control vary with age is discussed.     

Cognitive strategies in coping with expedition stress

Expeditions provide a valuable opportunity for studying processes of coping with a stressful situation. An expedition to India organized by the British Schools Exploring Society has already been reported as being accompanied by positive changes on self-report personality scales. This paper is concerned with detailed cognitive coping measures completed throughout the 6 weeks of the expedition. It needs to be noted that the results relate to young adults and to those who provided detailed coping information; the generalizability of the result is a matter for future research. The expedition presented a mixture of physical and social stresses. Men enjoyed the physical experience more than women, but women enjoyed the social experience more than men. There was generally greater reliance on personal resources than on social support in coping with stress. This was particularly true for men in coping with physical stress and women in coping with social stress. In general, the physical stresses had been better anticipated than the social ones. Positive reformulations were much more widely used as coping strategies than avoidance/resignation strategies, especially so for physical stresses. However, use of avoidance/resignation strategies was the better predictor of outcome, with those who used them being least likely to show positive personality change as a result of the expedition. The results are related to current research on stress and coping.     

Validating a measure of children's monitoring-blunting coping styles in dental situations

The monitoring-blunting theory of coping suggests that when faced with a threatening situation, individuals can respond by either monitoring or avoiding (blunting) threatening information. The current study sought to validate a scale of children's preferences for monitoring or blunting in dental situations (the Monitoring Blunting Dental Scale or MBDS). The psychometric characteristics of the scale were assessed in a sample of 240 New Zealand children aged 11-13. Reliability was adequate for both monitoring (α = 0.74) and blunting (α = 0.76) subscale scores. Convergent validity was indicated by strong correlations (>0.6) between the measure's subscales and those of a related scale, although discriminant validity with respect to dental anxiety was problematic for the blunting subscale. Exploratory factor analysis supported a two-factor monitoring-blunting model, although confirmatory factor analysis indicated reasonable but imperfect fit for this model, SBχ2(251) = 510.7, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.066. We reflect on conceptual issues which may underlie the difficulties experienced here and elsewhere in developing psychometrically sound measures of Miller's blunting construct and suggest that the monitoring subscale of the study scale may be most useful to other researchers.     

Antenatal predictors and use of coping strategies in labour

Abstract

One aim of antenatal preparation is developing coping strategies for use (luring labour. However, the existing literature suggests that attendance at classes is not associated with lower pain or distress, possibly because receiving training cannot be assumed to be associated with subsequent practice.

This study aimed to assess whether attenders at classes actually used their taught strategies in their labours, whether use was associated with psychological benefits and whether antenatal measures could predict subsequent use. Concepts from the theories of planned behaviour and self efficacy were used to attempt to predict use of three types of coping strategy.

Use was high for breathing strategies but poor for relaxation and posture. Proportion of use of breathing and relaxation showed weak associations with lower fear. Whilst intentions did act as significant predictors for use of posture and relaxation only small proportions of the variance were accounted for and other antenatal measures showed little predictive capacity.

Reasons why women in labour may fail to take behavioural consequences from their antenatal beliefs are considered. Predicting health-related behaviours where maintenance rather than just initiation is involved may require greater consideration of intra-situational and emotional factors. Modifications of antenatal preparation to facilitate use of strategies are discussed.     

Children's strategies for coping with depression

Rippere (1974-1983) has investigated adults' commonsense beliefs concerning behavioural strategies for coping with depression. The study report here was concerned with the developmental aspects of the concept of 'common knowledge'. It was designed in order to investigate, through conversations with children of various ages, the hypothesis that children may possess a common knowledge concerning the 'things to do' when they are feeling depressed. 120 children distributed across seven age groups (ranging from 4-11 yr) were asked in an open-ended interview "What's the thing to do when you're feeling depressed?". Their responses were subjected to frequency counts and content analysis. Content analysis of the data indicated that 50% of all responses mentioned 'Play' strategies, 12% mentioned 'Help and comfort seeking', and 11% mentioned 'avoidance' activities. There was an inverse relationship between the frequency with which items were mentioned and the number of items mentioned at that frequency. This finding supports the notion of the existence of a canon of commonsense 'things to do' when feeling unhappy, and accords well with the findings of Rippere.     

Asian American families' collectivistic coping strategies in response to 9/11

Our study investigated the use of individualistic and collectivistic coping strategies among Asian American family members of victims of the World Trade Center (WTC) attacks on September 11th, 2001. Interviews were conducted with 11 Asian Americans who had lost a member of their family in the WTC attacks. Using the Discovery-Oriented Research analysis (Mahrer, 1988), results indicated that Asian Americans utilized the following collectivistic coping methods to deal with their losses: individualistic coping, familial coping, intracultural coping, relational universality, forbearance, fatalism/ spirituality, and indigenous healing methods. Additionally, our research found that cultural stigmata, privacy issues, and lack of culturally responsive counselors were factors in participants not utilizing available mental health services. Implications for culturally appropriate services, counseling, and research are discussed.     

Virtues and character strengths related to approach coping strategies of college students

The objectives of this study are: (1) to describe virtues, character strengths and coping strategies of college students; (2) to analyze the relationship between virtues, character strengths and coping strategies; and (3) to evaluate the predictive relationship between virtues and coping strategies. Ninety-one college students (98 % females), aged between 19 and 42 years (M = 23.5; SD = 4.0), completed questionnaires VIA Inventory of Strengths, and Coping Responses Inventory-Adult. Strong positive correlations were found between the six virtues and three coping strategies. Specifically, Wisdom presented a positive correlation with behavioral and cognitive approach coping. Sixteen strengths presented positive correlations with behavioral approach coping strategies and four strengths presented positive correlations with cognitive approach coping. Wisdom described 23 % of the variance in cognitive-approach coping, and Transcendence together with Temperance described 33.5 % of the variance in behavioral approach coping. We conclude that the college setting offers a rich opportunity for further studies of these relationships.     

Correlations between perfectionism and coping strategies in response to researcher-selected vignettes or participant-selected events

Participants, taking classes that met general learning requirements, were 133 men and 240 women from two private, Catholic, liberal arts college campuses. The sample consisted of 131 first-year students, 91 sophomores, 70 juniors, and 81 seniors. The sample was 95.2% Euro-American, consistent with the populations of these campuses, and 98.1% were between 18 and 22 years old. There were five different survey packets. One packet asked participants to report how they coped with a self-selected situation from their own past (Standard Condition). The other four packets asked participants how they would cope with one of four vignettes developed by the researchers. Two vignettes described common social situations, and two described common academic situations a college student would find stressful. The packets were randomly distributed among participants. Several significant correlations between perfectionism and coping strategies were found for the 4 vignettes, but none were found under the Standard Condition. Were there a self-serving bias in participants' reports of past situations in which they remember coping successfully, correlations would be diminished between coping and perfectionism in the Standard Condition.