Basic psychological needs and work motivation: A longitudinal test of directionality

Most work-related studies of self-determination theory (SDT) have focused either on satisfaction of basic psychological needs or on types of work motivation when studying motivational processes at work. The few studies that have considered both mechanisms have usually assumed that satisfaction or frustration of basic psychological needs is a prerequisite of different types of work motivation. Nevertheless, the directionality of this relation has not been explicitly tested in previous studies of the workplace. The current study explored the relations among managerial need support, basic psychological need satisfaction at work, and work motivation. It tested competing sets of hypotheses regarding the directionality of these three core constructs within SDT’s model of work motivation. A longitudinal analysis suggested that managerial need support was positively directly related to basic psychological need satisfaction but not directly related to work motivation. Further, results indicated that basic psychological need satisfaction was related to work motivation over time and not the other way around. In addition, it was found an indirect relation between in managerial need support and in work motivation through in basic psychological need satisfaction. These findings have important implications for future SDT research testing process models in the workplace.     

Deci and Ryan's cognitive evaluation theory of intrinsic motivation: A set of common sense theorems

Cognitive evaluation theory as put forward by Deci and Ryan (1985) is examined. The theory, which deals with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, has inspired considerable amount of empirical research in the last two decades. However, contrary to the mainstream view and that of its authors, it is argued here that the theory consists of necessary truths of common sense (folk) psychology, rather than contingent and empirically testable hypotheses. As such the theory spells out what must necessarily be the case in human motivation and the empirical evidence amassed to test its validity is irrelevant. Such testing should be abandoned if its purpose is to appraise the truth value of the theory's propositions. To empirically test necessary true propositions is not only redundant in such cases, but also a waste of time and resources.     

A FIELD STUDY OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL PURPOSE: RESEARCH- VERSUS ADMINISTRATIVE- BASED RATINGS

Many researchers have discussed the theoretical and practical importance of rating purpose. Nevertheless, the body of empirical studies, the majority of which were conducted in a laboratory setting, focus on leniency. There has been little research on other effects of rating purpose. The present study examines 223 ratees in a field setting for whom there were both administrative-based performance appraisal ratings (which were actually used for personnel decisions) and research-based performance appraisal ratings (obtained for a validation study). Two of the hypotheses were supported; administrative ratings were more lenient than research-based ratings. The administrative-based ratings demonstrated a statistically significant relationship with ratee seniority, while the research-based ratings did not. There was mixed support for a third hypothesis: Research ratings were significantly correlated with a predictor, while the administrative ratings were not. The difference between the validity coefficients, however, was not significant. Contrary to the hypothesis, the rank order between administrative-based and research-based ratings was relatively high ( r = 33).     

SIMULATION-BASED ASSESSMENT OF MANAGERIAL COMPETENCE: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Prior work based on complexity theory has attempted, with some success, to predict general and managerial performance in complex, uncertain, and fluid task settings. The present paper evaluates a quasi-experimental simulation technique that was specifically designed to measure the impact of individual differences in a number of managerial styles (including a style reflecting cognitive complexity) on executive performance. Twenty simulation-based measures were tested for reliability and validity. On the basis of the data obtained from two separate samples, it was concluded that this quasi-experimental simulation technology may be useful for assessing a number of managerial styles that are not currently tapped by other measurement methods. Research results reported in this paper, as well as results obtained in other concurrent efforts, are summarized.     

The Dimensionality of the Industrial Sales Job Characteristics

Abstract

Sales representative motivation, satisfaction, and performance have been topics of considerable interest to managers and researchers alike for many years. Recently researchers have borrowed conceptualizations from organizational behavior and applied them successfully in the sales setting. For the most part, research on work-related sales representative motivation has focused on either the “expectancy” approach or the “job characteristics” approach. A brief overview is presented, followed by an assessment of the validity of the core dimensions found in the increasingly popular Job Diagnostic Survey in a sales representative context. The managerial implications of the assessment are also discussed.     

Explorations using computer simulation to comprehend thematic apperceptive measurement of motivation

The new theory of motivation by Atkinson and Birch (1970), based on conceptual analysis of a change in activity, has been programmed to allow computer simulation of effects of differences in motivation on the stream of operant behavior. Simulation of conditions that exist when people who differ in strength of achievement motive write imaginative stories in response to a sequence of pictures shows that construct validity does not require internal consistency as traditionally supposed. The theoretically deduced differences in total time spent imagining achieving (instead of something else) can postdict input differences in motive strength (i.e., construct validity) even when there is little or no internal consistency reliability as indicated by Cronbach's (1951) alpha computed from theoretically deduced time spent imagining achievement in response to particular pictures. This general point has already been amply documented in 25 years of productive empirical research using TATn Achievement. Now a definitive theoretical refutation of the repeated psychometric criticism of the method is provided. Those who have been moved to dispel fantasies about fantasy-based measures of achievement motivation (Entwistle, 1972) are invited, instead, to examine the shallow theoretical foudation of our traditional myths of measurement.This paper elaborates a report presented August 30, 1975, at the 83rd annual meeting of the American Psychological Association. The authors gratefully acknowledge early assistance by Mary M. Moffett, and financial support by a Rackham Faculty Research Grant (JWA), a National Science Foundation Fellowship (KB), and a Michigan Student Medical Research Grant (LHP). Intricate detail has been avoided in describing the several simulations for the sake of clarity in this overview of exploratory work.     

Ethics and incentives: an evaluation and development of stakeholder theory in the health care industry

This paper utilizes a qualitative case study of the health care industry and a recent legal case to demonstrate that stakeholder theory's focus on ethics, without recognition of the effects of incentives, severely limits the theory's ability to provide managerial direction and explain managerial behavior. While ethics provide a basis for stakeholder prioritization, incentives influence whether managerial action is consistent with that prioritization. Our health care examples highlight this and other limitations of stakeholder theory and demonstrate the explanatory and directive power added by the inclusion of the interactive effects of ethics and incentives in stakeholder ordering.     

MOTIVATION TO MANAGE AT THE TOP EXECUTIVE LEVEL: A TEST OF THE HIERARCHIC ROLE-MOTIVATION THEORY

Measures of managerial motivation (the Miner Sentence Completion Scale - Form H) were obtained from a sample composed of 75 chief executive and operating officers, executive vice presidents, and group vice presidents. Within this sample, 49 individuals had clearly worked their way up a bureaucratic hierarchy, and thus were congruent with managerial role motivation theory, while 26 were either the original entrepreneur or relatives of the entrepreneur. Comparisons were made with a sample of 65 managers in the same companies who, although of similar ages, had not reached the same high levels. The theory congruent top executives proved to have higher managerial motivation than either of the other two groups. These results support the hierarchic role-motivation theory and reinforce one of its most central propositions; they also support the use of the MSCS-Form H in the selection of managerial talent and in executive assessment.     

The relative importance of political skill dimensions for predicting managerial effectiveness

The present study uses relative weight analysis to garner support for the incremental validity of political skill over more traditional managerial skills for predicting managerial effectiveness and to help identify the underlying theoretical mechanisms driving this relationship. In addition, we explore boundary conditions, in terms of gender and organizational level, where political skill may be more or less critical. Using 199 middle- and upper-level managers enrolled in leadership development programmes and multisource data, the findings supported political skill’s incremental validity over more traditional measures of managerial skills for predicting managerial effectiveness. In addition, two of five political skill dimensions—image management and interpersonal influence—were significantly important predictors of managerial effectiveness, providing support for social influence theory as perhaps the best theoretical model for understanding the political skill-effectiveness relationship. Also, an individual’s gender and level in the organizational hierarchy had significant moderating effects on the relationship between three political skill dimensions and managerial effectiveness.     

MULTIPLE ASSESSMENT OF MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS: INTERRATER AGREEMENT AND CONSENSUS IN EFFECTIVENESS MODELS

Research has consistently identified poor interrater agreement among multiple assessments of managerial performance. Three alternative sources of dissensus in the effectiveness ratings were examined: rating errors, selective perceptions, and variations in criteria type or weight. As the available empirical evidence and theoretical analysis show, all three causes provide plausible reasons—though in varying degrees—for the low agreement coefficient. However, an empirical study designed to test three specific hypotheses on criterion type and criterion weights found consensus in the effectiveness models of superiors, subordinates, and peers. Consensus among different raters was high on both the role behaviors and on the personal traits of the managers as criteria for effectiveness. While these findings supported Biddle's role theory (1979), disagreement on the relative weights of these criteria was evident. These observations underscore the need for further conceptualization on the preference functions of raters as a primary source of the low convergent validity coefficients among multiple raters. Further research is also desirable on contextual and cognitive factors that may lead to shifts in criterion type and criterion weight, as well as on actual rating error tendencies among different raters.     

Motivation to manage among women: Studies of business managers and educational administrators

Studies were undertaken in a department store and in four school districts to determine if managerial motivation is related to management success indexes and whether female managers have less managerial motivation than males. The measure of managerial motivation used was the Miner Sentence Completion Scale. Managerial motivation did prove to be significantly related to the success of female managers, but no consistent differences in the managerial motivation of male and female managers were found. The results are interpreted in terms of their implications for the vocational guidance of females and for research in the area of managerial talent supplies.     

自主－受控动机效应及应用

自我决定论是一种新的动机认知理论,它将动机区分为自主动机和受控动机。由受控动机到自主动机是一个连续体。在这个连续体上依据自主程度的高低分布着5种不同类型的动机。大量的研究表明不同类型动机之间存在不同的效应。而在实际应用中,要实现由受控动机向自主动机的转化,自主支持的环境是被证实的一个重要的因素。未来研究除了在研究方法上加以改进之外,在促进动机内化的具体应用研究方面还要进行更深入的探讨。而国内本土化研究则刚刚起步,有待于加强     

An Utility Based Framework for Evaluating the Financial Impact of Sales Force Training Programs

Limited attention has been devoted to the financial evaluation of sales training programs. In response to this shortcoming, this research proposes a sales training evaluation framework that integrates economic utility theory with Kirkpatrick's (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b) four-level training evaluation model. The proposed utility theory framework is tested using data derived from a sales training program conducted in Egypt. After performing the economic evaluation, sensitivity analysis is employed to demonstrate the financial trends of varying key training program variables. The paper concludes with discussions of theoretical and managerial implications, research limitations, and recommendations for future research.     

现代运动心理学研究综述

从宏观的角度描述了现代运动心理学的研究领域,分析了运动员个性、唤醒水平与运动成绩、焦虑与运动成绩、心理技能训练和运动动机等五个方面的研究倾向,指出：认知运动心理学仍是研究的主流,各类研究都在尽量追求更明确的理论导向和更好的生态学效度,试图综合性地探讨运动行为,并且更加注重在描述和预测的基础上解释和控制运动行为。     

Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. A 35-year odyssey

The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory. They describe the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. The external validity and practical significance of goal-setting theory are explained, and new directions in goal-setting research are discussed. The relationships of goal setting to other theories are described as are the theory's limitations.     

Affordances and Events: Theory and Research

In replying to the commentaries, I focus on issues relating to theory, empirical practice (i.e., to how research on events and affordances has been conducted), and empirical research that I think is needed. I reiterate my argument that because they differ qualitatively, affordances might be perceived without prior or concurrent perception of the underlying events. I suggest that research on event perception might, in principle, inform research on the perception of affordances, but existing research has made no explicit attempt to do this. I conclude by stressing the need for new research and for exponents of event perception to identify a theoretical motivation, within ecological theory, for why events should be perceived.     

认知闭合需要研究评述

认知闭合需要是个体稳定的认知特征,描述了个体在面对模糊情境时是否愿意系统处理信息的动机。已有研究表明,认知闭合需要对个体的信息处理过程和决策结果有显著的预测能力。总体上说,高认知闭合需要的个体更容易利用启发式进行思考,因此此类个体更容易受到过度归因、首因效应等的影响。虽然大多数的研究表明认知闭合需要是个体稳定的认知特质,但也有研究者发现环境因素如噪音等可以在一定程度上、在短时期内改变个体的认知闭合需要的水平。因此,在相关研究中,认知闭合需要既可以通过量表测量,也可以通过在实验中改变环境噪音和时间压力等方法来操纵。已有的关于认知闭合需要的研究也有不足之处。首先,如何引导高认知闭合者克服匆忙做出决策的动机并采用分析式的方式处理信息和进行决策,目前的相关研究还很少;其次,已有的关于认知闭合的研究大都为实验室研究,因此这些研究的外部效度较低;第三,认知闭合需要在冲突研究领域的应用被忽略了。未来有必要针对这些不足之处进行相应研究     

Attributional style,attributional retraining,and inoculation against motivational deficits

College students periodically experience many challenges in pursuit of their educational goals. Such experiences can have deleterious effects on subsequent motivation and performance when they are perceived as negative. Research shows that some students who experience negative events are buffered against motivational deficits, whereas others are motivationally at-risk. Several individual difference variables have been proposed to account for such diverse reactions. A longitudinal field study that involved three phases was conducted to extend this research. Phase I examined the motivational buffering effects of academic attributional style on students' performance, motivation, and emotions. Results indicated that attributional style related to students' performance, motivation, and emotions. Specifically, students who routinely made unstable and controllable attributions for negative academic events exhibited the greatest performance and motivation compared to students who typically made stable and uncontrollable attributions. Phases II and III were designed to examine the remedial benefits of attributional retraining for different attributional styles. Findings indicated that attributional retraining influenced motivation, emotions, and course grade. These results were qualified by the interaction between attributional style, attributional retraining, and time. Findings are discussed within Weiner's (1985, 1986) attribution theory. This research was based, in part, on the first author's dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology and the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. This research was supported by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRCC) doctoral fellowship, a University of Manitoba doctoral fellowship, and a SSHRCC postdoctoral fellowship to the first author. In addition, the research was also supported by a SSHRCC research grant (#410911296) to the second author. The authors gratefully acknowledge the helpful comments of Bernard Weiner, Harvey Keselman, John Adair, Rodney Clifton, and Robert Altemeyer. Also appreciated was the assistance of Verena Menec and the Higher Education Research group.