Parenting Perfectionism and Parental Adjustment

The parental role is expected to be one of the most gratifying and rewarding roles in life. As expectations of parenting become ever higher, the implications of parenting perfectionism for parental adjustment warrant investigation. Using longitudinal data from 182 couples, this study examined the associations between societal- and self-oriented parenting perfectionism and new mothers’ and fathers’ parenting self-efficacy, stress, and satisfaction. For mothers, societal-oriented parenting perfectionism was associated with lower parenting self-efficacy, but self-oriented parenting perfectionism was associated with higher parenting satisfaction. For fathers, societal-oriented parenting perfectionism was associated with higher parenting stress, whereas higher levels of self-oriented parenting perfectionism were associated with higher parenting self-efficacy, lower parenting stress, and greater parenting satisfaction. These findings support the distinction between societal- and self-oriented perfectionism, extend research on perfectionism to interpersonal adjustment in the parenting domain, and provide the first evidence for the potential consequences of holding excessively high standards for parenting.     

Parenting Young Children (PARYC): Validation of a Self-Report Parenting Measure

The measurement of parenting behaviors is important to the field of psychology and the goal of remediating problematic parenting as a means of reducing child problem behaviors. The Parenting Young Children (PARYC) is a self-report measure designed to address parenting behaviors relevant for the caregivers of young children, and was assessed in sample of 579 high risk families. The measure assesses the frequency of several parenting behaviors, the perception of the parenting behaviors as problematic, and the degree to which the caregiver would like to make changes in specific parenting skills. An examination of the validity of the parenting behavior items revealed three parenting scales: (1) Supporting Positive Behavior (2) Setting Limits, and (3) Proactive Parenting. Confirmatory factor analysis results corroborate the findings of the exploratory factor analysis, supporting the measurement structure of these parenting scales. Tests of convergent validity indicate the PARYC scale is a suitable measure of parenting behaviors. In addition, the self-perception of parenting behaviors as problematic predicted concurrent levels of service utilization while controlling for simultaneous child behavior problems.     

Helicopter Parenting and Emerging Adult Self-Efficacy: Implications for Mental and Physical Health

Helicopter parenting has become an increasing concern among practitioners, college administrators, and professors. Further, some research has indicated that this form of parenting may have a deleterious effect on emerging adult college students’ mental health. This study examines the factor structure of the Helicopter Parenting Behaviors measure, a recent scale developed to examine intrusive and supportive parenting behaviors, by using confirmatory factor analysis. We utilized a self-determination theoretical framework to replicate and expand current research regarding the impact of helicopter parenting and autonomy supportive parenting on emerging adult mental and physical well-being. Further, we examined self-efficacy as a mechanism for helicopter parenting and autonomy supportive parenting to impact well-being, using structural equation modeling with a sample of 461 emerging adult college students from a large southeastern, United States university. The two-factor structure of the Helicopter Parenting Behaviors measure was confirmed, indicating helicopter parenting and autonomy supportive parenting are two unique, but related, constructs. Both autonomy supportive parenting and helicopter parenting were found to have indirect effects on anxiety, depression, life satisfaction, and physical health through self-efficacy. Results also indicated autonomy supportive parenting was directly related to life satisfaction and physical health when accounting for self-efficacy, whereas helicopter parenting was not directly related to well-being. This study adds to the extant literature by its’ application of a family-level lens to the self-determination theory, its’ advancement of parenting behaviors measurement, and its’ exploration of the continued influence of parenting during emerging adulthood.     

Parenting stress and marital relationship as determinants of mothers' and fathers' parenting

Using the actor–partner interdependence model, we explore how various sources of stress and support experienced by fathers and mothers influence their own parenting styles and the parenting styles of the partner. Data from 227 couples were analyzed, with mothers and fathers rating their parenting stress and marital relationship and children rating the parenting styles of both mothers and fathers. Structural equation models revealed actor effects of parenting stress on demanding and responsive parenting styles, as well as partner effects between positive aspects of marital relationship and responsive parenting style. The results further indicate that the strength of these pathways is similar for both mothers and fathers and do not support the hypothesis that the parenting of fathers is more vulnerable than the parenting of mothers.     

Bidirectional Relationships Between Parenting Stress and Child Coping Competence: Findings From the Pace Study

The present study was designed to evaluate the bidirectional relationships between parenting stress and child coping competence. Data from a diverse sample of 610 parents enrolled in the parenting our children to excellence program was used to evaluate whether parenting stress negatively contributes to affective, achievement, and social coping competence in preschoolers, as well as whether child coping competence predicts parenting stress; after accounting for child disruptive behavior. Results from cross-lagged panel analyses demonstrated a bidirectional relationship, such that parenting stress predicted later child coping competence and child coping competence predicted later parenting stress. Assessment of ethnicity differences indicated that child coping continues to have a long-term impact on parenting stress, regardless of parent ethnicity. The same relationship did not hold for earlier parenting stress on later child coping competence, however, indicating a bidirectional relationship for African American families, but not for their European American counterparts. The relationship between parenting stress and child coping competence is discussed with respect to their conceptual and clinical implications. Suggestions for parent training intervention and prevention programs are given.     

Nature and Nurturing: Parenting in the Context of Child Temperament

Accounting for both bidirectional and interactive effects between parenting and child temperament can fine-tune theoretical models of the role of parenting and temperament in children’s development of adjustment problems. Evidence for bidirectional and interactive effects between parenting and children’s characteristics of frustration, fear, self-regulation, and impulsivity was reviewed, and an overall model of children’s individual differences in response to parenting is proposed. In general, children high in frustration, impulsivity and low in effortful control are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of negative parenting, while in turn, many negative parenting behaviors predict increases in these characteristics. Frustration, fearfulness, and effortful control also appear to elicit parenting behaviors that can predict increases in these characteristics. Irritability renders children more susceptible to negative parenting behaviors. Fearfulness operates in a very complex manner, sometimes increasing children’s responses to parenting behaviors and sometimes mitigating them and apparently operating differently across gender. Important directions for future research include the use of study designs and analytic approaches that account for the direction of effects and for developmental changes in parenting and temperament over time.     

Predicting young women's role preference for parenting and work

Young women's motivations for two sex-role options were predicted with scores describing perceived rewards/costs of parenting. Using a sequence of multiple regression analyses it was found that the reward-cost perceptions of parenting and work were predictors of the two motivational options. Individual rewards/costs of parenting and work items were better predictors than summed items. It was found that a preference for the career choice was produced by not viewing parenting as rewarding. The preference for parenting choice was influenced most by perceiving parenting as rewarding. The perceived cost and rewards of work were not predictors of a career choice. The items found to be the best predictors for either the parenting or career choice all dealt with perceptions of parenting. It was concluded that these parenting perceptions are the key elements for young women's role motivations.     

抚养困难与教养行为的关系及其调节因素

本研究考察了567名2-5岁幼儿母亲的抚养困难与教养行为的关系,并进一步探讨了在高抚养困难情景下母亲教养行为的可能调节因素.结果发现(1)幼儿母亲的抚养困难感受总分与其教养行为的各个侧面均有非常显著的相关,母亲抚养困难程度越高,则其敏感性、参与性、积极情感及对儿童发展的指导性均较低,而其对儿童的消极情感较多;(2)回归分析表明,来自儿童侧面的"积极强化缺乏"、"多动/注意分散"、"不良心境"与"过度要求"以及来自母亲侧面的"缺乏依恋"、"缺乏能力感"等方面的抚养困难是预测母亲教养行为的重要因素;(3)在母亲抚养困难较高的情况下,夫妻双方的受教育水平分别对母亲教养行为的一些侧面具有调节作用.     

The Association Between Self-Critical Rumination and Parenting Stress: The Mediating Role of Mindful Parenting

Self-critical rumination is a type of rumination focused on the content of self-critical thoughts. Although self-criticism and rumination are two maladaptive psychological processes with a negative effect on parenting, including parenting stress, the role of self-critical rumination on parenting outcomes has never been explored. The aim of this study is to analyze the role of self-critical rumination on parenting stress and examine whether mindful parenting dimensions (listening with full attention, compassion for the child, non-judgmental acceptance of parental functioning, emotional awareness of the child, and self-regulation in parenting) mediate this association. The moderating role of child’s age in the direct and indirect effects was also examined. A sample of 265 Portuguese mothers of children/adolescents from the general community completed measures of self-critical rumination, mindful parenting, and parenting stress. Self-critical rumination was negatively associated with all mindful parenting dimensions and positively associated with parenting stress. However, only non-judgmental acceptance of parental functioning and emotional awareness of the child dimensions were significant mediators of the relationship between self-critical rumination and parenting stress. The link between self-critical rumination and parenting stress as well as the indirect effects were not moderated by the child’s age. This study identifies an important maladaptive psychological process (self-critical rumination) that explains individual differences in parenting and a mechanism that may account for the link between self-critical rumination and parenting stress, which can both be modified through intervention.     

Parenting styles and its impact on children – a cross cultural review with a focus on India

Parenting is a dynamic process, influenced by socio-cultural factors. It is an important contributing factor to child development and childhood psychopathology. Research investigating association between parenting styles and child outcome are limited in India. This paper aims to review studies conducted in West and in India in order to study cultural differences in parenting styles and its outcome. We found that despite hypothesized cultural differences between the West and India, the effect of parenting styles on children appear to be similar across culture, and culture did not serve as a moderator for parenting style and child outcome. An Authoritative parenting styles was associated with better outcome than authoritarian and neglectful/uninvolved parenting style in both Western countries and in India. Findings on indulgent/permissive parenting style were mixed in both Western countries and in India. The article discusses cultural shift in the parenting styles, and its implications for the future.     

Parenting Assessed by Observation versus Parent-report: Moderation by Parent Distress and Family Socioeconomic Status

Assessment of parenting frequently relies on parent self-report despite well-documented discrepancies between this methodology and observational measures. In the current study, we investigated patterns of disagreement between self-reported and observational measures of positive parenting and negative parenting with 102 dyads of parents and 4–6 year-old children. Specifically, we tested whether differences in parent distress and family socioeconomic status (SES) moderated the association between self-reported and observed parenting. Results showed significant interactions with less agreement between self-report and observational measures among parents reporting higher levels of distress and among families from lower SES backgrounds. Effects were more pronounced in models of negative parenting than those of positive parenting. Findings suggest that two factors relevant to parenting quality, emotional distress and SES, predict meaningful differences in manner of parent-report relative to observational measures. We discuss implications for the extant literature and for future efforts regarding effective and efficient parenting measurement.     

Parents' perceptions of parenting

Much has been written about parenting practices from a theoretical perspective, but we know very little about what parents believe about parenting. This article begins with an overview of parenting theory, reviews briefly studies that have attempted to identify parenting characteristics, and provides a rationale for the use of the scaling techniques known as Q-methodology for rank-ordering statements of parenting behavior.     

直升机教养的内涵、影响和后效

直升机教养是父母对始成年期青少年普遍采用的一种教养方式,它是指父母给孩子过度的支持,较多地控制其行为,并不能给予孩子适合其年龄的自主权的教养方式。本文从直升机教养的概念辨析、影响因素和作用后效方面进行了系统梳理和整合分析,未来研究需要扩展研究对象和内容、精细探讨直升机教养的作用机制、重视我国始成年人的直升机教养,深入考察直升机教养与健康成长的因果关系。     

Differential parenting and children's behavioral problems: curvilinear associations and mother-father combined effects

In this study the associations between mothers' and fathers' differential parenting and children's oppositional and emotional problems were examined. A curvilinear relationship between differential parenting and children's outcomes was hypothesized, as well as the combined effect of mothers' and fathers' parenting. Data came from a community sample of 599 two-parent families with multiple children per family and were analyzed using a cross-classified multilevel model. Results showed that both family average parenting and differential parenting explained unique variance in children's outcomes. The curvilinear hypothesis was supported for oppositional behavior but not for emotional problems. The effects of mother and father positivity were found to be additive for both family average parenting and differential parenting, but for negativity there was evidence for multiplicative effects.     

Putting Parenting in Perspective: A Discussion of the Contextual Factors That Shape Parenting Practices

Child and family researchers have long recognized parenting as making an important contribution to child development. However, little is known about the factors that shape parenting itself, particularly factors outside the family. This article examines the literature on variables that comprise the context in which parenting occurs, and summarizes what is known about how three contextual factors (ethnicity/culture, family socioeconomic status, and neighborhood/community) influence parenting practices. Implications for future research on parenting, clinical interventions designed to improve parenting, and policy decisions affecting parenting are discussed.     

Parenting stress, perceived parenting behaviors, and adolescent self-concept in European American families

This study assesses whether the stresses associated with parenting a child are indirectly related to adolescent self-concept through parenting behaviors. We examined longitudinal associations among mothers' and fathers' parenting stress at age 10, children's perceptions of parenting at age 10, and adolescents' self-concept at age 14 in 120 European American families. Mothers' and fathers' parenting stress was related to children's perceptions of acceptance and psychologically controlling behavior, and psychologically controlling behavior (and lax control for fathers) was related to adolescent self-concept. We further examined which domains of parenting stress and perceived parenting behaviors were associated with adolescents' scholastic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct. Parenting stress was related to specific parenting behaviors, which were, in turn, related to specific domains of self-concept in adolescence. Parenting stress appears to exert its effects on early adolescent self-concept indirectly through perceived parenting behavior.     

父母教养方式的潜在类别:潜在剖面分析

采用问卷法,对764名青少年进行测试,首先采用潜在剖面分析模型探索了父母教养方式的潜在类别,然后通过青少年道德脱离、道德同一性的得分差异来确认潜在类别的效度。结果表明,从青少年的角度父母教养方式分为积极型、消极型和混合型三种,其中积极型人数最多、消极型人数最少。此外,青少年道德脱离、道德同一性的得分在这三种潜在类别上存在显著差异,表明本研究得到的三种潜在类别有较好的效度。积极型教养方式下青少年道德脱离的得分显著低于混合型和消极型的得分,混合型教养方式下道德脱离的得分显著高于消极型的得分;积极型教养方式下青少年道德同一性的得分显著高于混合型和消极型的得分,混合型教养方式下道德同一性的得分显著低于消极型的得分。     

Parenting Beliefs, Parental Stress, and Social Support Relationships

The present study built on prior research by examining the relationship of parental stress and social support to parenting beliefs and behaviors. A sample of 87 parents provided their views concerning the importance of parenting characteristics as well as their level of parental stress and perceived social support. These parents completed the Parent Behavior Importance Questionnaire-Revised, as well as the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Results reveal that, in general, less parenting stress was related to more positive parenting perceptions and more parenting stress was related to less positive parenting perceptions. Perceived social support was not found to moderate the relationship between parenting stress and parenting perceptions. This study extends prior research regarding parenting in relation to stress by adding the dimension of social support. There are substantial implications for parent education, professional practice, and research.     

A Dialectical Behavior Therapy Skills Group Case Study on Mothers With Severe Emotion Dysregulation

Parenting is an emotionally demanding endeavor, which can be particularly challenging for parents who struggle with psychopathology and lack the regulation skills to manage their own emotional lability. Although dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is an effective treatment that directly targets emotion dysregulation, little is known about whether DBT might also improve parenting behaviors. A DBT skills group was employed to examine whether DBT skills are utilized by mothers in their parenting and whether skill use improves parenting. Four mothers with severe emotion dysregulation who met diagnostic criteria for at least one Axis I disorder were part of a case study, in which they completed a DBT skills group for mothers, and two of the mothers participated in an in-depth exit interview regarding their use of DBT skills in their parenting. The mothers reported substantial changes in their parenting during the exit interview and modest improvements were found for parenting in pre- to posttreatment parenting assessments. This paper describes the various parenting contexts in which DBT skills were used and discusses maternal emotion regulation as a potential pathway from DBT skills to improved parenting.