The Effects of Self-Esteem,Task Label,and Performance Feedback on Task Liking and Intrinsic Motivation

Abstract

American undergraduate students' task liking and intrinsic motivation were examined using 2 × 2 × 2 (Self-Esteem × Task Label × Feedback) analyses of variance. Identical tasks were labeled as either difficult or easy, and bogus performance feedback was given randomly to each subject. For subjects with high self-esteem, feedback had strong impact on their liking of a difficult task, whereas for those with low self-esteem, feedback had strong impact on liking of an easy task. After positive feedback for performing a difficult task, subjects with high self-esteem increased task liking, whereas those with low self-esteem decreased task liking. Subjects also showed higher intrinsic motivation after positive feedback than after negative feedback.     

Exploring the Effects of Ostracism on Performance and Intrinsic Motivation

Two experiments investigated the effects of ostracism on performance and intrinsic motivation. Participants were either included or ostracized via an online ball-tossing game and then completed two trials of an interesting word-search task. Later, they engaged in a free-choice trial designed to assess their intrinsic motivation for the word-search task. Results indicated that ostracized participants performed more poorly and experienced lower positive mood and relatedness than included participants. Although no direct effects of ostracism on intrinsic motivation were found, in both studies ostracism indirectly affected intrinsic motivation through positive mood, such that ostracism led to poorer mood and, in turn, lower intrinsic motivation. Implications for future research on ostracism in organizations are discussed.     

社会动机与“自我-他人”对创造性表现的影响

以往研究发现个体为自己和为他人的创造表现存在差异,但研究结论不一致。另外,考虑到社会动机是影响“自我-他人”表现的重要因素,本研究采用2（社会动机：亲社会、利己）×2（“自我-他人”：自我、他人）混合实验设计,考察社会动机与“自我-他人”如何来影响创造性表现。结果发现,亲社会组创造性表现的新颖性、有效性和总分均高于利己组,支持了动机性信息加工理论。自我组在创造性表现的新颖性和总分上高于他人组,这与解释水平理论的观点不一致。矛盾的原因可能是在东方“紧”文化背景下,人们按照社会认可的价值体系来为他人创造时,人们对新颖性的态度是谨慎的,因此为自我创造比为他人创造更加新颖。     

Intrinsic Motivation and Subjective Well-Being: The Unique Contribution of Intrinsic Religious Motivation

The purpose of this study was to determine if the frequently reported positive association between Intrinsic Religious Motivation (IRM) and Subjective Well-being (SWB) is explicable in terms of a more general intrinsic orientation to life that involves secular as well as religious domains. Measures of 3 distinct domains of intrinsic orientation (work, leisure, and religion) were administered to 161 college students along with 4 measures of SWB: satisfaction with life, purpose in life, self-efficacy, and negative affect. Four multiple regressions were performed, 1 to predict each measure of SWB, with the 3 intrinsic orientation scales, gender, and social desirability as the predictors in each regression. Intrinsic religiousness emerged as an independent predictor of satisfaction with life, purpose in life, and self-efficacy. Intrinsic religiousness appears to make a unique contribution to the prediction of SWB.     

Creativity as Mediator for Intrinsic Motivation and Sales Performance

Substantial theoretical and empirical literature indicates inconsistent performance implications of intrinsic motivation, suggesting the possibility of some explanatory mechanisms. However, little is known about the factors that might explain intrinsic motivation and sales force performance relation, particularly in highly competitive and demanding fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) marketplace requiring new and useful solutions. Creativity, being a critical yet underutilized weapon in sales force arsenal, has the potential to assume the role. Therefore, this study aims at developing and testing a theory-driven framework in linking intrinsic motivation to sales performance while using sales force creative performance as partial mediator. By employing structural equation modeling, the empirical validity of the proposed mediating model is evaluated against plausible moderating model in a sample of 688 frontline field salespersons of FMCG companies in Lahore (Pakistan). Findings indicated that sales force creative performance is nurtured by intrinsic motivation that, in turn, promotes sales performance. Practical implications of findings for sales force management and suggestions for future research are presented, too.     

内部动机、外部动机与创造力的关系研究

本研究以277名文科三、四年级的大学生为被试,综合考察在故事、连线和命名任务下,内部动机,外部动机对创造力表现的影响。多变量方差分析发现,对于三个测验的共同部分,内部动机和外部动机的主效应均显著,但交互作用不显著。分别对每个任务进行方差分析发现,对于连线任务而言,内部动机和外部动机的主效应均显著;对于命名任务而言,外部动机的主效应显著,内部动机的主效应不显著;对于故事任务而言,内部动机和外部动机的主效应不显著。内部动机与外部动机之间在三个任务中均不存在显著的交互作用。多重回归分析发现,对于不同的任务,内部动机与外部动机的贡献显著不同。     

Transformational Leadership and Sports Performance: The Mediating Role of Intrinsic Motivation1

We developed and tested a model in which transformational leadership affects sports performance indirectly, through the mediating effects of intrinsic motivation. During the season, 168 university athletes provided data on their perceptions of their coach's transformational leadership and their own intrinsic motivation. At the end of the season, their coaches assessed the performance of the athletes. Using LISREL VIII, three models were estimated following the sequence of mediator tests outlined by Kelloway (1996, 1998). The proposed model received considerable support. The results isolate intrinsic motivation as a mediator of the relationship between transformational leadership and sports performance, suggesting that transformational leadership may enhance intrinsic interest in the task.     

Expressing Intrinsic Motivation Through Acts of Exploration and Facial Displays of Interest

Intrinsically-motivated behavior has been defined through participants' task persistence, during a free-choice interval. While fruitful, this operational definition assesses only the person's postperformance reaction to an activity. Presumably, people experience and express intrinsic motivation during task engagement as well. The need therefore exists for a supplemental in-performance behavioral measure of intrinsic motivation. To test the viability of constructing such a measure, we recorded the extent to which five acts of exploration and four facial displays of interest corresponded to self-reports of interest, self-determination, and competence for 60 undergraduates as they solved SOMA puzzles. Correlational and LISREL analyses confirmed the validity of three acts of exploration and two facial displays of interest We concluded that just as task persistence is a valid postperformance indicator of intrinsic motivation, acts of exploration and facial displays of interest are valid in-performance indicators.     

Intrinsic Motivation,Organizational Justice,and Creativity

For employees to generate creative ideas that are not only original, but also useful to their company, they must interact with their workplace environment to determine organizational needs. Therefore, it is important to consider aspects of the individual as well as their environment when studying creativity. Intrinsic motivation, a predictor of individual level creativity, is associated with feelings of enjoyment and interest in the task at hand. To the extent that tasks are nested in an environment, intrinsically motivated individuals may perceive their environment more favorably than individuals who are not interested in the task. Specifically, such individuals may view the rewards (i.e., distributive justice), decision-making procedures (i.e., procedural justice), and their interpersonal treatment (i.e., interpersonal justice) in their work environment as more fair, due to the positive affect associated with intrinsic motivation. This study examines the relationships between intrinsic motivation, perceptions of organizational fairness, and creativity. Participants (n = 133) worked on a task in a laboratory setting and completed measures of intrinsic motivation and organizational justice. Findings were supportive that intrinsically motivated participants viewed their environment as fairer than participants that were uninterested in the task. Consequently, distributive and interpersonal justice were shown to significantly mediate the relationship between intrinsic motivation and creativity. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

家庭社会经济地位、智力和内部动机与创造性的关系

以415名初二和高二年级学生为对象,采用修订后的《青少年科学创造性测验》,考察了家庭社会经济地位(SES)、智力和内部动机与创造性的关系。结果发现:(1)家庭SES、智力、内部动机与创造性之间有显著正相关。(2)作为环境因素,家庭SES对创造性有显著预测作用,其标准化路径系数分别等于或高于智力和内部动机等个体因素的系数。(3)家庭SES对创造性既有直接影响,同时通过智力又有间接影响;智力和内部动机对创造性分别有直接影响。     

High-level Enactive and Embodied Cognition in Expert Sport Performance

Abstract

Mental representation has long been central to standard accounts of action and cognition generally, and in the context of sport. We argue for an enactive and embodied account that rejects the idea that representation is necessary for cognition, and posit instead that cognition arises, or is enacted, in certain types of interactions between organisms and their environment. More specifically, we argue that enactive theories explain some kinds of high-level cognition, those that underlie some of the best performances in sport and similar practices (dance, martial arts), better than representational accounts. Flow and mushin (mindfully fluid awareness) are explained enactively to this end. This results in a mutually beneficial analysis where enactivism offers theoretical and practical advantages as an explanation of high performance in sports, while the latter validates enactivism.     

初中生对体育课堂动机气氛的认知与内部动机、自我效能及体育成绩的关系

1　前言激发学生参加体育运动的内部动机、保持和提高自我效能 ,是促进学生身心和谐发展、培养终身体育观念和能力的重要保证。八十年代以来 ,在社会认知研究模式的指导下 ,梅尔、尼克尔斯等理论家创建的成就目标理论 ,集中于对成就情境中决定人的认知和行为的成就目标的分析。国外已就成就目标理论在体育运动领域中的应用进行了较为广泛的研究 ,并且得出一致的结论 :不同的成就目标定向 ,对于体育运动中个体的动机过程、认知、情感和行为有着不同的影响 ,而且在特定情境中究竟采取怎样的目标定向 ,不仅受到个人倾向性目标定向的影响 ,还受…     

Effect of Reward Contingency on Intrinsic Motivation

The effects of type of task and type of reward contingency on intrinsic motivation for subsequent task performance were investigated. The sample consisted of 50 young Indian adults. The results showed a significantly greater amount of free choice time spent on a heuristic task rather than an algorithmic task. The verbal measures of intrinsic motivation yielded a significant effect of reward contingency with greater intrinsic motivation under performance-contingent reward, followed by task-contingent and no-reward conditions, respectively. The results support self-determination and competence processes as important mediators of intrinsic motivation.     

物质奖励对内在动机的侵蚀效应

物质奖励制度在现实生活中无处不在, 但物质奖励能够激发人们的工作热情吗？依据认知评价理论, 奖励具有信息和控制两种因素, 前者有助于内在动机的维持, 后者则会损害内在动机, 即有侵蚀效应。这种侵蚀效应已经为众多研究所证明。对此效应的深入研究发现, 在不同情形下, 侵蚀效应的大小受到奖励条件设置、竞争情形、个体的归因倾向、反馈信息、自主选择空间等因素的影响。近年来神经学研究则进一步观察到侵蚀效应的神经表征与机制。     

Self-Efficacy,Perceptions of Success,and Intrinsic Motivation for Exercise1

A number of investigators have attempted to identify the determinants of continued participation in exercise regimens. Within a social cognitive framework, the present study examined the relationships among self-efficacy cognitions, perceptions of success, and multidimensional intrinsic motivation in the exercise domain. Multivariate analyses of variance indicated that highly efficacious individuals were more intrinsically motivated toward aerobic dance than were their less efficacious counterparts. However, multiple regression analyses revealed both perceptions of success and self-efficacy to account for significant variance in intrinsic motivation at both the composite and dimensional levels. Moreover, perceptions of success were considerably stronger predictors than were efficacy cognitions. The results are discussed in terms of the need for multiple measures of perceived success, the employment of longitudinal designs to determine the direction of causality among these variables, and possible implications for adherence issues.     

Teacher's Encouragement on Creativity,Intrinsic Motivation,and Creativity: The Mediating Role of Creative Process Engagement

Drawing on Dewey's pragmatic perspective on talent cultivation and previous research on promoting employee creativity in industry, this study investigates student creativity performance in relation to teacher's encouragement, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement. Based on survey data collected from 140 vocational high school students who participated in a nation‐wide contest in Taiwan, path analyses were performed using structure equation modeling techniques. The results indicate that both teacher's encouragement and intrinsic motivation have a significant, although indirect, effect on student creativity, and that creative process engagement, as opposed to teacher encouragement or intrinsic motivation, has a direct and significant mediating effect on student creativity. This finding is in partial agreement with prior research which reports student creativity is positively associated with teacher encouragement and intrinsic motivation, highlighting the mediating role of creative process engagement in facilitating student creative performance.     

The Effects of Visual Arts Pedagogies on Children's Intrinsic Motivation,Creativity, Artistic Skill,and Realistic Drawing Ability

This exploratory study compared the effects of two different teaching methods (teacher‐directed vs. choice‐based) on the overall art skills, realistic drawing ability, intrinsic motivation to pursue art, and creativity in art productions in children attending the two art programs. The sample consisted of 83 third graders who completed two art exercises and an intrinsic motivation questionnaire. Using the Consensual Assessment Technique, 20 undergraduate art majors rated each drawing on creativity, overall artistic skill, and realistic drawing ability; these scores showed high‐internal consistency and served as measures for art skills and creativity. Children from the teacher‐directed program scored significantly higher on art skill (M = 3.09) than the children from the choice‐based program (M = 2.53, p = .025). Children from the teacher‐directed program also performed better on realistic drawing (M = 3.7, p = .038) than the children from the choice‐based program (M = 2.99). Art teaching method did not predict intrinsic motivation or creativity. Further analyses showed significant correlations between intrinsic motivation scores and overall art skill (r = .376, p = .002) and realistic drawing skill (r = .335, p = .007). Participating in the teacher‐directed program is associated with higher levels of artistic skill and realistic drawing ability, which are correlated with increased intrinsic motivation.     

Parenting and Children's Intrinsic Motivation in Age Group Swimming

The parenting correlates of children's intrinsic motivation in swimming were examined. Mothers and fathers of 135 9- to 12-year-old competitive swimmers completed questionnaires about their child's swimming ability and about their current parenting practices. Children provided information about their swimming motivations. Results showed that children's ability in swimming (based on both mother and father ratings and on objective swimming performance) was positively associated with children's reports of intrinsic motivation. After controlling for child ability, mothers', but not fathers', parenting practices predicted children's intrinsic motivation: maternal directiveness was negatively associated with intrinsic motivation and maternal performance goals showed a positive association. Curvilinear effects were significant as well, with the highest level of intrinsic motivation found among children whose mothers showed intermediate values on performance goals and either high or low levels of directiveness.