The acute effects of nicotine on positive and negative affect in adolescent smokers

Although adolescent cigarette smoking remains a critical public health concern, little is known about the reinforcing mechanisms governing smoking in this vulnerable population. To assess predictions derived from both positive and negative reinforcement models of drug use, the authors measured the acute effects of nicotine, as administered via tobacco cigarettes, on both positive and negative affect in a group of 15- to 18-year-old smokers. A matched group of nonsmokers served as a comparison group. Findings revealed that whereas adolescents who smoked a cigarette experienced reductions in both positive and negative affect, the observed reductions in negative affect were moderated by nicotine content of the cigarette (high yield vs. denicotinized), level of nicotine dependence, level of baseline craving, and smoking expectancies pertinent to negative affect regulation. Nonsmokers experienced no change in affect over the 10-min assessment period, and no interaction effects were observed for positive affect. Overall, the findings conform to a negative reinforcement model of nicotine effects and strongly suggest that, even among young light smokers, nicotine dependence and resultant withdrawal symptomatology may serve as motivating factors governing smoking behavior.     

Effects of tobacco smoking on electroencephalographic, auditory evoked and event related potentials

After overnight abstinence, tobacco smokers smoked an average nicotine yield cigarette and nonsmokers sham smoked an unlit placebo cigarette. EEG alpha(1), delta, and theta frequency amplitudes decreased, whereas alpha(2) and beta frequency amplitude increased. Short, middle (EP) and long latency ERP were also studied in nonsmokers and smokers just after smoking, and after overnight abstinence from tobacco. Short latency potentials were unaffected by tobacco smoking or abstinence. Middle and long-latency potentials were reduced during abstinence and enhanced immediately after tobacco smoking. These findings indicate that compared to nonsmokers smokers have a higher arousal level after smoking than when partially abstinent. Evidence for both normalization from tobacco abstinence as well as stimulation was obtained.     

Electroencephalographic responses to photic stimulation in habitual smokers and nonsmokers.

Two studies are reported in which electroencephalograms (EEGs) of habitual cigarette smokers and of nonsmokers were taken before and after they were required to smoke a cigarette. The EEGs were scored for incidence of EEG "driving" responses to photic stimulation, an index that appears to reflect the balance between central adrenergic and cholinergic nervous systems. The findings suggest that smokers tend to have a central autonomic balance less in favor of adrenergic functioning than do nonsmokers. Cigarette smoking may alleviate a possible central adrenergic insufficiency of smokers. These findings suggest a solution to "Nesbitt's paradox," which has reference to the fact that while nicotine is a central adrenergic stimulant, smokers describe the effect of smoking in sedational terms (i.e., as relaxing or calming).     

NICOTINE FADING AND SELF-MONITORING FOR CIGARETTE ABSTINENCE OR CONTROLLED SMOKING

This study compared four treatment approaches to cigarette smoking: (1) a nicotine fading procedure, in which subjects changed their cigarette brands each week to ones containing progressively less nicotine and tar; (2) a self-monitoring procedure in which subjects plotted their daily intake of nicotine and tar; (3) a combined nicotine fading/self-monitoring procedure; and (4) a slightly modified American Cancer Society Stop Smoking Program. Thirty-eight habitual smokers were assigned to one of the treatment groups. The study had two goals: (1) to achieve a clinically significant percentage of abstinence, and (2) to reduce the nonabstainers' smoking to a “safer” level by having them smoke low tar and nicotine cigarettes. The 18-month followup results showed that the nicotine fading/self-monitoring group was the most successful: 40 per cent were abstinent and all who had not quit were smoking cigarettes lower in tar and nicotine than their baseline brands. Half the nonabstainers had decreased their rate of smoking relative to baseline while the other half had increased. Furthermore, the fading/self-monitoring group achieved the largest reductions from baseline in daily nicotine and tar intake (61% and 70% respectively). The results suggest that the study's goals were achieved and that the nonaversive combined procedure could be used to treat not only habitual smokers but also smokers with severe cardiovascular and respiratory problems, because it does not have some of the inherent limitations of the successful aversive smoking cessation procedures.     

Controlling puff volume without disrupting smoking topography

In studies of the behavioral and physiological effects of cigarette smoking, it is of critical importance to keep the dose of nicotine as constant as possible. This is difficult with smoking, because when the nicotine delivery of a cigarette is increased or reduced, smokers tend to compensate by modifying their smoke intake. In a laboratory study, it is relatively easy to control the number of cigarettes and the number of puffs taken, but it is more difficult to control the volume of each puff. Various procedures have been developed to control puff volume, but they have a disadvantage of disrupting the normal topography of smoking. We have developed an apparatus for delivering fixed volumes of smoke that has given consistent tar and nicotine values needed in studies of the behavioral and physiological effects of cigarette smoking. This method has the distinct advantage of allowing the subject to inhale the smoke in a normal fashion, with a draw resistance comparable to that of a cigarette. The device is inexpensive and easy to make.     

The effects of shock as a punisher for cigarette smoking

An attempt was made to reduce the cigarette smoking of three subjects by means of a special cigarette case that delivered aversive shock when opened. The number of cigarettes smoked was recorded by a counter in the cigarette case. The validity of the counter readings as a measure of smoking was obtained by a specially designed participant-observer technique. It was found that the rate of smoking decreased as a function of the intensity of the shock. Also, the smoking returned to its previously unpunished level after the shock punisher was discontinued. Both of these findings confirm the results of laboratory studies of punishment of simpler responses and extends them to more complex responses in a naturalistic situation. Surprisingly, the duration for which the apparatus was worn also decreased as a function of the intensity of the shock. This finding reveals that this aversive shock technique produced avoidance behavior that prevents the technique from having extensive applicability for eliminating smoking. The same limitation may apply to the use of aversive shock for eliminating other undesirable behaviors.     

Perceived Believability Among Adolescents of Health Warning Labels on Cigarette Packs1

This study investigated the extent to which adolescents believe the health warning labels on cigarette packs, and the relationship of current smoking status and gender to the believability ratings. Subjects were 691 students in grades 5 through 12. MANOVAs revealed that, smokers, both male and female, reported significantly less belief in the validity of 3 of the health warning labels than nonsmokers. These findings support prior investigations which indicate that adolescent smokers are less likely to accept the specific health risks associated with smoking than nonsmokers. The results, however, also raise the question as to what value such health warning labels have as a deterrent to cigarette smoking.     

The Aura of Tobacco Smoke: Cigars and Cigarettes as Image Makers

Male and female college undergraduates evaluated the character traits of men and women who were seen smoking cigars, smoking cigarettes, or not smoking. The evaluated adults were about 10 years older than the students. Irrespective of the evaluated persons' gender, ratings of appeal were specific to the gender of the evaluator. Men and women agreed in their perception of cigarette smokers as being less appealing than nonsmokers. However, whereas men ascribed markedly less appeal to cigar smokers than to cigarette smokers, women perceived cigar smokers as being as appealing as nonsmokers. This pattern was observed for all positive aspects of appeal; the inverse pattern was apparent for all negative aspects of appeal. In contrast, men and women concurred in judging cigar smokers as being more confident and secure than either nonsmokers or cigarette smokers.     

Prevalence of cigarette smoking in Iran.

The current research assessed the prevalence of cigarette smoking in Shiraz, Iran by randomly selecting 1,335 subjects (782 men and 553 women) from the city for a face-to-face interview and completion of a questionnaire. Of the participants, 205 (26%) of the men and 20 (3.6%) of the women reported being current smokers. The mean ages of smokers and nonsmokers were 41.8 and 37.0 yr., respectively (range between 16 and 90 years for smokers and nonsmokers). The mean age of starting to smoke cigarettes was 21.3 yr. (range of 10 to 60). The most common reasons for current cigarette smoking were Need to avoid withdrawal symptoms, Release of tension, and Pleasurable purposes. Foreign filter-tipped cigarettes were the most common type consumed. The mean number of cigarettes per day was 13.4 (SD = 10.3). Reports for onset of cigarette smoking included Modeling, Release of tension, and Pleasurable purposes. Cigarette smoking was reported by more males than females. The most common reason for onset of cigarette smoking was different from that for current smoking. Frequencies of smokers within age groups were varied.     

吸烟者感知吸烟社会规范与社交性吸烟行为的关系：身份认同和关系观的作用

考察吸烟者身份认同和关系观在感知吸烟社会规范与社交性吸烟行为关系中的作用。对1016名吸烟者进行问卷调查,结果表明：（1）感知吸烟社会规范显著正向预测社交性吸烟;（2）身份认同对感知吸烟社会规范和社交性吸烟关系起部分中介作用;（3）关系观正向调节感知吸烟社会规范和社交性吸烟的关系,而对感知吸烟社会规范和身份认同关系的调节不显著。研究支持了感知吸烟社会规范影响社交性吸烟的身份认同机制和文化价值观调节机制。     

Cigarette smoking and personality change across adulthood: Findings from five longitudinal samples

Personality traits are related to cigarette smoking. However, little is known about the link between smoking and change in personality. Therefore, the present study examined whether current cigarette smoking and smoking cessation are associated with personality change across adulthood. Participants (n = 15,572) aged from 20 to 92 years were drawn from five longitudinal cohorts with follow-ups that ranged from 4 to 20 years. Compared to non-smokers, current smokers were more likely to increase on neuroticism and to decline on extraversion, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness over time. Compared to the persistent smokers, those who quit had a steeper decline in agreeableness. Cigarette smoking is related to detrimental personality changes across adulthood, and the pattern was not improved by smoking cessation.     

Predicting Relationship of Smoking Behavior Among Male Saudi Arabian College Students Related to Their Religious Practice

This study describes the relationships of smoking behavior among a sample of male college students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) to their religious practice, parents’ smoking behaviors and attitudes, peers’ smoking behaviors and attitudes, and knowledge about the dangers of smoking. A 49-item questionnaire was developed and pilot tested in KSA. This questionnaire was completed during the academic year 2013 by 715 undergraduate male students at the King Saud University in Riyadh. 29.8 % of the students were smokers (13.8 % cigarette smokers, 7.3 % sheesha smokers, and 27 % cigarette and sheesha smokers). Students in the College of Education were much more likely to be smokers than the students in the College of Science. The differences between the College of Education and the College of Science was statistically significant (χ² = 16.864. df = 1, p = .001). Logistic regression analysis suggested that students who were more faithful in their practice of Islam were 15 % less likely to smoke. Students who were more knowledgeable about the dangers of smoking were 8 % less likely to smoke. The logistic analysis identified peers (friends) as the most powerful factor in predicting smoking. The four-factor model had an overall classification accuracy of 78 %. The need to understand more fully the dynamics of peer relations among Saudi Arabian males as a basis for developing tobacco education/prevention programs. Prevention programs will need to include education and changes in the college level or earlier in KSA.     

Adolescent Personality Antecedents of Adult Cigarette Smoking: A Longitudinal Study

Comprehensive personality assessments, made independently for early and late adolescence, were employed to predict smoking onset and maximum number of cigarettes smoked per day as reported by adult smokers. Also, comparisons were made between adult smokers and nonsmokers. The results indicate that men who had been more sexually active as adolescents smoked more but that women who had been more emotionally constricted and under more conflict as adolescents were heavier smokers. Smoking started earlier for men who had showed little self-awareness and a rather macho orientation during their adolescence; early-smoking women tended to have been conventionally feminine. Personality differences between future smokers and nonsmokers were few but showed similar sex differences. The results suggest that manifesting once traditional sex-role characteristics for both adolescent boys and girls presages early onset and heavier adult cigarette smoking. Preventive antismoking educational campaigns aimed at youth might be guided by these findings because they suggest some motivational bases that may find later expression in smoking practices.     

The effects of a deposit contract as a component in a behavioural programme for stopping smoking

A contract procedure is described in which a money deposit provided by cigarette smokers at the time of stopping smoking is returned at set intervals contingent on their having not smoked. Outcome results up to 6 months after the stop smoking date are presented for 33 smokers who used this procedure as a component in a behavioural programme, and for 27 smokers who received the same treatment package but without the deposit component. The results for both groups are encouraging, and in the short term the deposit group did significantly better than the no-deposit group. Reasons for the failure of this difference to be maintained are discussed, and it is suggested that long term results would be improved by holding deposits over a longer interval. Other evidence is presented to show that the deposit procedure had a specific effect on smoking rather than a more general effect on attendance rates. Deposit contracts also appear acceptable to smokers. Urinary nicotine analysis appeared effective in deterring as well as detecting faking.     

Adolescent personality antecedents of adult cigarette smoking: a longitudinal study

Comprehensive personality assessments, made independently for early and late adolescence, were employed to predict smoking onset and maximum number of cigarettes smoked per day as reported by adult smokers. Also, comparisons were made between adult smokers and nonsmokers. The results indicate that men who had been more sexually active as adolescents smoked more but that women who had been more emotionally constricted and under more conflict as adolescents were heavier smokers. Smoking started earlier for men who had showed little self-awareness and a rather macho orientation during their adolescence; early-smoking women tended to have been conventionally feminine. Personality differences between future smokers and nonsmokers were few but showed similar sex differences. The results suggest that manifesting once traditional sex-role characteristics for both adolescent boys and girls presages early onset and heavier adult cigarette smoking. Preventive antismoking educational campaigns aimed at youth might be guided by these findings because they suggest some motivational bases that may find later expression in smoking practices.     

Effect of Depressive Symptoms and Sex on the Relationship Between Loneliness and Cigarette Dependence: A Moderated Mediation

Loneliness is a subjective and emotionally unpleasant experience of perceiving insufficient social relationships. Previous research has revealed that loneliness constitutes a psychosocial risk factor for depression, and is also related to unhealthy behaviors such as smoking. This study aims to examine the relation between loneliness, depression, and cigarette dependence, and to explore the role of sex in this relationship. A total sample of 275 adult treatment-seeking daily smokers (Mage = 45.3; 61.5% females) was used. Our results showed a significant correlation between higher scores of loneliness, depressive symptoms, and cigarette dependence. In addition, mediation analysis showed a significant indirect effect of loneliness on cigarette dependence, via depressive symptoms. Regarding the effect of sex, we found that this variable significantly moderated the relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette dependence. Results of this study extend previous literature by showing that, in treatment seeking smokers, loneliness is a significant predictor of depressive symptoms, and through this relation, it predicts cigarette dependence. Additionally, sex was a significant moderator of this relation. These findings have several clinical implications, and also contribute to the understanding of cigarette dependence, which is a well-known barrier for smoking cessation.     

Carbon monoxide levels and rates of consumption after changing to low tar and nicotine cigarettes

Studies which have examined low tar and nicotine (LT/LN) cigarette smoking have failed, for the most part, to assess adequately the long-term effects of these cigarettes. Most studies have been short-term laboratory investigations of nicotine regulation. More practical strategies for changing to LT/LN cigarettes have largely been ignored. The present study examined long-term changes in smoking patterns following the gradual introduction of LT/LN cigarette smoking. Predicted increases in reported rates of consumption as well as carbon monoxide (CO) levels were not found for most smokers following changes to LT/LN cigarettes. Generally, smokers showed decreased rates of consumption, and a majority had lower CO levels at the end of treatment and during follow-up. Thus, LT/LN cigarette smoking would appear to be an alternative treatment goal for risk reduction in individuals who cannot stop smoking.     

A note on responses to ethyl alcohol before and after smoking1

Differential sensitivity was measured before and after smoking a cigarette by 10 smokers, using 10 nonsmokers as controls. Stimuli consisted of reagent grade ethanol in eight concentrations ranging from 4% to 12%. No significant differences were observed between smokers and nonsmokers or before vs after smoking, although slightly higher overall correct responses and correspondingly smaller jnds were obtained for the nonsmokers. No practice affects were noted among the control group between the first and second set of samples. The findings confirm previous results which had been recently questioned.     

A measure of perceived pain and tobacco smoking interrelations: pilot validation of the pain and smoking inventory

Mounting evidence indicates that pain can motivate cigarette smoking behavior, smokers have reliably endorsed the use of tobacco to cope with pain, and there is reason to suspect that pain may impede smoking cessation. Smoking-related outcome expectancies are among the best predictors of cigarette consumption and relapse, and the goal of this pilot study was to develop a standardized measure of how tobacco smokers perceive their pain and smoking behavior to be interrelated (i.e. pain as a motivator of smoking, expectancies for smoking as a means of coping with pain, and pain as a barrier to quitting). Participants (N = 75) completed an online survey that was designed to assess interrelations between pain and tobacco smoking. The nine-item Pain and Smoking Inventory (PSI) demonstrated excellent internal consistency (α = .95). As expected, PSI scores were higher among smokers with chronic pain (vs. no pain), and were positively associated with established indices of both pain and tobacco smoking dependence. These results corroborate the notion that smokers can effectively communicate perceptions of interrelations between their pain and smoking behavior. Future research is needed to establish reliability and validity of the PSI among larger, more diverse samples of smokers with varying levels of pain. Future work should also examine PSI scores as predictors of smoking cessation outcomes, and whether PSI data may usefully inform the development of tailored interventions for smokers in pain.