AN EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON OF A CONTINGENCY MANAGED COURSE WITH LARGE LECTURE METHOD1

Contingency management procedures resembling the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) were compared with a conventional lecture method in teaching an introductory psychology course. The use of a within-subjects design in which half of the students experienced both teaching conditions made it possible to examine the reliability of test-score differences over time when subjects were balanced over conditions. In the contingency management course, material was broken down into 14 small units, each unit covering about 30 pages of text. Students were assigned to an undergraduate teaching assistant who was encouraged to develop a close working relationship with each of his/her 13 assigned students. Specifically, this meant that the assistant was to call each student by his/her first name, show an interest in the student's quiz performance, help the student understand difficult concepts, and discuss various topics of interest to the student. Each week, the teaching assistant administered up to four different 10-item multiple-choice quizzes over the week's chapter. A modified “Doomsday Contingency” required each student either to achieve a score of 80% on one of the four quizzes or drop the course. Most students passed the quiz during the first session of the week; those not passing were tutored on special areas of weakness. No student was actually forced to leave the course under the Doomsday Contingency. Although quizzes were administered on a group basis, they were scored individually while the student stood near by. In addition to the weekly quiz assignment, students under the contingency management procedures were asked to attend one lecture per week. The contingency management method departed from traditional PSI in that (1) self pacing was minimal, such that students were required to master one unit per week or drop the course, (2) teaching assistants met with students in small groups, and usually gave individual tutoring only to those students who did not pass the quiz on the first attempt, and (3) students were asked to attend one lecture per week. However, it was similar to PSI in that small units of subject matter were assigned and unit mastery was assessed through use of undergraduate assistants who delivered immediate feedback. Students in the conventional lecture group attended three 50-min lectures each week; two of these lectures followed textbook material closely, while the third, which was attended by all students, concerned material only indirectly related to the text. As a result, students in both conditions were exposed to essentially identical material. Students in the lecture condition could also obtain copies of the unit quizzes, although few did so. Course grades were determined by scores on two 45-item multiple-choice hourly exams, each covering half of the semester material (each worth 25%), and by a 90-item final exam over the entire course (worth 50%). These measures also served as the dependent variables. The experimental design employed a crossover technique in which one fourth of the students began with the contingency management method and then switched to lecture method at midsemester, while another fourth began with the lecture method and switched to contingency management. The other students stayed in the same condition throughout the semester, half under contingency management and half under the lecture method. On the last day of class, all students filled out an extensive questionnaire that assessed their opinions and attitudes about the teaching techniques. In addition to allowing for assessment of any progressive effects that the contingency management procedures might have had over time, the crossover design also permitted students to make meaningful comparisons of the two teaching methods, since half of the students experienced both methods in the same course. Although average test performance was only slightly higher under the contingency management condition, this difference occurred on each exam and was statistically reliable in each case. Further, the method did not interact with time, as it produced about a three-item advantage per half semester. On each of the three exams, teaching method accounted for between 5 and 8% of the total variance in test scores. Finally, attitude measures indicated that students experiencing half a semester of the contingency management procedures preferred them to the lecture technique, but that only those students with a full semester of contingency management rated the course significantly better than students in the full semester lecture course.     

THE USE OF IMPOSED AND SELF-SELECTED TRAINING PACKAGES TO ESTABLISH CLASSROOM TEACHING SKILLS1

Although much is known about techniques for teaching elementary pupils in the classroom, no procedures have been consistently effective in training teachers to use these techniques. In the present study, six teacher trainees were observed individually and trained sequentially to use a variety of teaching skills: praise for academic responses, praise for appropriate classroom behavior, correction procedures for incorrect academic responses, and token fines. These skills were examined under four conditions: (1) baseline sessions were taught by the trainees before any instructions on the use of the teaching skills. (2) Instruction sessions were taught by the trainees after they were given instructions describing the use of several teaching skills. (3) During each Imposed-Package session, the trainees received modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, and grade and quiz contingencies on their use of a particular teaching skill. (4) During each Self-Selected Package session, a grade contingency was in effect with the trainees choosing the components (modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, quiz contingency) they wanted included in their training package for a particular skill. The effects of instructions were quite varied. Large increases on three of the four skills occurred with one trainee; almost no changes occurred with another trainee; and changes with the remaining four trainees fell within these extremes. The Imposed and Self-Selected Packages reliably increased the use of teaching skills, including those skills for which instructions had not been effective. The Self-Selected Package was considered to be as effective as the Imposed Package, since the time required for training a teaching skill varied from two to nine sessions with both packages. Under the Self-Selected Package, the trainees chose from modelling, verbal feedback, and graphic feedback, but none chose the quiz contingency. Questionnaire data collected after training showed that all six trainees preferred the Self-Selected Package to the Imposed Package. The effectiveness of the Self-Selected Package, together with the trainees' preference for it, suggests that it may be desirable for teacher training programs to specify the teaching skills, arrange a contingency for performance, and allow trainees to choose which additional components are to be used in each training session.     

SIDE EFFECTS OF THERAPEUTIC PUNISHMENT ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND EYE CONTACT

The effects of therapeutic punishment delivered following inappropriate behavior on the academic responding and eye-to-face contact of 2 persons with developmental handicaps was examined using a counterbalanced alternating treatment design. Each subject was sequentially taught by two therapists each day. While one of the therapists taught the subject, the second therapist stood in close proximity directly behind the subject. During baseline, neither therapist delivered punishment following inappropriate behavior. During the treatment condition, one of the therapists delivered all punishment regardless of whether she was teaching or standing behind the subject. The therapist who delivered all punishment for 1 subject did not deliver any punishment for the other subject. During the last condition, the therapist delivering all punishment was reversed for 1 of the subjects. The results indicated that the task being taught was mastered by each subject only when the therapist delivering punishment was teaching. Data collected also indicated that each subject made more eye-to-face contact when the therapist delivering all punishment was teaching. Although neither therapist had to deliver punishers often, punishment had to be administered less often when the therapist teaching the subject was also the therapist delivering punishment.     

Music and movement education as a form of motivation in teaching Greek traditional dances

Research has shown that motivation for participating in physical education, particularly in traditional dances, has decreased dramatically. The aim of this research was to examine whether a music and movement program would increase pleasure and intrinsic motivation of students in elementary education while teaching them Greek traditional dances. 232 students were divided into two groups, a trained group of 135 participants (72 boys, 63 girls) and a control group of 97 (53 boys, 44 girls). The trained group was taught using the music and movement teaching model of traditional dances. The control group was taught using the instructional or guided teaching method of traditional Greek dances. To measure effectiveness of the two methods was accomplished by the completion of McAuley's Intrinsic Motivation Inventory. Analysis of scores showed use of music and movement education had a positive effect on intrinsic motivation for dancing and active participation of students, especially of the trained boys' group.     

Graphing calculators and students' conceptions of the derivative

This study compared the effect of using graphing calculators on college students' conceptual understanding of the derivative with the traditional teaching approach in Calculus I course. Students (49 men and 52 women) in four classes at a large public university participated. On a posttest, women who were taught calculus using the graphing calculator had significantly higher scores than those taught by the traditional method.     

Teachers and students: Reflections on social control and future performance

To instruct consists of arranging controls between teacher, student, and subject matter. Initial controls must emanate from the teacher since those of the subject matter are minimal, crude, or missing. Teachers mand students to behave in certain ways with respect to a given subject matter. Eventually, however, the teacher must transfer the teacher mediated and managed control of the student to natural controls functioning directly through student interaction with the subject matter. Difficulty in doing this occurs due to the reinforcers for both student and teacher derived from social contact. Nevertheless, the student eventually must be taught to interact with the subject matter independent of teacher involvement if the student is to maintain effective contact with the subject matter beyond the period of formal instruction.     

Amount and distribution of study in a personalized instruction course and in a lecture course

The rapid proliferation of courses based on Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) calls for a prompt evaluation of the relative costs involved in PSI and more traditional forms of college instruction. To determine the cost in student time required by a course taught with PSI relative to lecture, students did their studying in a special Study Center where course materials could be used but not removed. Students in the PSI section spent an average of about 50% more time in the Study Center (46 hr) than did students in the lecture section (30 hr), but that difference was made up by the lecture students spending an average of 20 hr attending lectures. Thus, total preparation time was about the same. PSI students scored slightly higher on common course exams, and while college entrance exam scores correlated highly with course exam scores, Study Center time was reliably related to course exam score only for PSI students. An analysis of the study records of individual students revealed that PSI produced fairly regular patterns of study by all students, while lecture students varied greatly in their patterns.     

On Becoming a Tutor: Toward an Ontogenetic Model

Eight pairs of girls and 8 pairs of boys at each of three age groups (3, 5, and 7 years) took part in a three-phase investigation. One child in each pair was taught how to assemble a construction task by a computer-assisted tutoring system. That child then taught a peer of the same age and sex. After the peer-tutoring session, the child who had been taught by the peer attempted to construct the task alone. Predictions about age-related differences in the tutoring behavior of children at the three age groups were drawn from the literature on peer monitoring and children's theory of mind. The hypothesis that children's ability to learn a task correlates with both their instructional competence and their peer's learning received some support. The results also show significant changes in monitoring strategies, verbal instruction, and contingency of teaching at the three ages that are in line with hypotheses drawn from the theory of mind literature. The theoretical implications of the results in relation to connections between the ontogenesis of monitoring skills and theory of mind are explored.     

Receiving the Gift of Teaching: From ‘Learning From’ to ‘Being Taught By’

This paper is an enquiry into the meaning of teaching. I argue that as a result of the influence of constructivist ideas about learning on education, teaching has become increasingly understood as the facilitation of learning rather than as a process where teachers have something to give to their students. The idea that teaching is immanent to learning goes back to the Socratic idea of teaching as a maieutic process, that is, as bringing out what is already there. Against the maieutic conception of teaching I argue for an understanding of teaching in terms of transcendence, where teaching brings something radically new to the student. I explore the meaning of the idea of transcendence through a discussion of Kierkegaard and Levinas, who both criticise the maieutic understanding of teaching and, instead, argue for a transcendent understanding of teaching—an understanding of teaching which they refer to as ‘revelation.’ Whereas Kierkegaard argues that revelation—which he understand as a process of ‘double truth giving’—lies beyond the power of the teacher, Levinas interprets revelation as the experience of ‘being taught.’ I use Levinas’s suggestion in order to explore the distinction between ‘learning from’ and ‘being taught by’ and argue that teaching has to be understood in the latter sense, that is, in terms of the experience of ‘being taught.’ To connect the idea of teaching to the experience of ‘being taught’ highlights that teaching can be understood as a process of ‘truth giving’ albeit that (1) this ‘gift’ lies beyond the powers of the teacher, and (2) the truth that is given, has to be understood in terms of what Kierkegaard calls ‘subjective truth’—which is not relativistic truth but existential truth, that is, truth that matters for one’s life. Understanding teaching in these terms also opens up new possibilities for understanding the role of authority in teaching. While my argument implies that teachers cannot simply and straightforwardly ‘produce’ the experience of ‘being taught’—so that what matters has to do with the conditions under which the gift of teaching can be received—their actions and activities nonetheless matter. In the final section of the paper I therefore argue that if we want to give teaching back to education, we need to resist the depiction of the teacher as a disposable and dispensable ‘resource’ that students can learn from or not, and need to articulate and enact a different story about the teacher, the student and the school.     

Personality and the experimental study of education

Literature is reviewed suggesting that a child's personality determines to a large extent his or her reaction to specific methods of teaching, and even to the whole ethos and atmosphere of the teaching situation. Thus, extraverted children benefit from being taught along the lines of discovery learning, while introverted children benefit from being taught along the lines of reception learning. The apparent lack of difference in achievement in groups taught by these methods hides the large individual differences factor that appears in the interaction term. It is suggested that facts of this kind should be of considerable concern to those who design our courses for future teachers, and for teachers generally. We owe our children care in the design of methods for teaching, and personality differences play an important part in such design.     

Fast acquisition of cooperation and trust: A two-stage view of trusting behavior

Trustful behavior was defined in terms of the consecutive numbers of matching-to-sample problems worth money that each subject worked during sessions that ended in an equitable distribution. Two stages of acquisition are inherent in this definition; the first stage requires acquisition of an equitable method of distributing reinforcers (cooperation) to show that the within-session deviations (trust) from equity that develop during the second stage are temporary and are not part of an inequitable method of distributing reinforcers. Previous research has indicated that a contingency to trust is necessary to override the aversiveness of the inequity inherent in trusting and to produce consistent and maximal trust (half of the problems worked consecutively by each subject). The present experiment examined such a contingency. The trust contingency was an increased requirement for changing the direction of problem allocation. Only the subject who had been allocated a problem could change that allocation, by pulling a lever 45 or more times. On the other hand, no separate responses were required to allow the person who worked the last problem to also work the next one (passive trust). Hence, giving a problem was the only way to increase the distribution of problems to the other person and hence prevent oneself from receiving all of the reinforcers. All eight pairs of subjects cooperated from the outset. Trusting behavior developed for all four pairs exposed to the contingency to trust and expanded to maximal levels by the second session for three of the four pairs.     

A comparison of methods for teaching receptive labeling to children with autism spectrum disorders

Many early intervention curricular manuals recommend teaching auditory-visual conditional discriminations (i.e., receptive labeling) using the simple-conditional method in which component simple discriminations are taught in isolation and in the presence of a distracter stimulus before the learner is required to respond conditionally. Some have argued that this procedure might be susceptible to faulty stimulus control such as stimulus overselectivity (Green, 2001). Consequently, there has been a call for the use of alternative teaching procedures such as the conditional-only method, which involves conditional discrimination training from the onset of intervention. The purpose of the present study was to compare the simple-conditional and conditional-only methods for teaching receptive labeling to 3 young children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. The data indicated that the conditional-only method was a more reliable and efficient teaching procedure. In addition, several error patterns emerged during training using the simple-conditional method. The implications of the results with respect to current teaching practices in early intervention programs are discussed.     

TEACHER-VERSUS PEER-MEDIATED INSTRUCTION: AN ECOBEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS OF ACHIEVEMENT OUTCOMES

In three experiments, we compared the effects of instructional arrangements that varied in: (a) teacher versus peer mediators, (b) methods used, (c) levels of student academic responding generated, and (d) content taught and tested. Instructional arrangements (i.e., tasks, structure, teacher position, teacher behavior) and students' levels of academic responding were measured by an observation system which served as an index of the independent variables. Students' accuracy on weekly spelling, arithmetic, and vocabulary tests and pre- and post-standardized achievement tests (Experiments 2 and 3 only) were the dependent variables. Results indicated that the classwide peer tutoring, compared to the teacher's procedure, produced more student academic responding and higher weekly test scores, regardless of treatment order or subject matter content (Experiment 1). The four lowest performing students in each class, in particular, benefited from peer tutoring, often performing as well as the other students. These findings were replicated in Experiments 2 and 3 wherein content taught/tested was also manipulated. Standardized test score gains were higher in those areas in which peer tutoring was used longest. Issues related to the functional analysis of instruction and achievement gain are discussed.     

Using relational reflexivity as a resource in teaching family therapy

In this paper we talk about creating coherence and transparency in the relationships between teacher, model of adult learning and subject taught. We describe how we have made connections between adult learning theory and family therapy to generate resources for action in teaching on the qualifying level course at Northumbria University. Using a recent teaching session and the voices of trainees, we illustrate these connections with an example of teaching about relational reflexivity, using methods which enabled us to generate reflexive ‘flow’ in the learning context.     

Evaluation of multiple‐alternative prompts during tact training

This study compared 2 methods of fading prompts while teaching tacts to 3 individuals who had been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The 1st method involved use of an echoic prompt and prompt fading. The 2nd method involved providing multiple‐alternative answers and fading by increasing the difficulty of the discrimination. An adapted alternating‐treatments design showed that both procedures were more effective than a no‐intervention control condition. Providing multiple alternatives did not increase error rates or teaching time, and better maintenance was shown for tacts taught with the multiple‐alternative prompt.     

Choice for reinforced behavioral variability in children with autism spectrum disorder

Although individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) tend to behave repetitively, certain reinforcement contingencies (e.g., lag schedules) can be used to increase behavioral variability. In a lag schedule, reinforcers only follow responses that differ from recent responses. The present study was designed to promote variable play behavior in preschoolers with ASD interacting with playsets and figurines and to assess preference for variability and repetition contingencies. Data have shown a preference for variability in pigeons and college students, but this effect has not been explored in clinical populations. In this experiment, preschoolers with ASD were taught to discriminate between variability and repetition contingencies. Only play behaviors that met a lag schedule were reinforced in the presence of one color, and only repetitive behaviors were reinforced in the presence of another. After differential performance was established, participants experienced a concurrent chains schedule. Participants chose between the colors taught in training and then completed a play session with the selected contingency. One participant selected variability and repetition equally. The other participants showed a slight preference for variability. These results indicate that some individuals with ASD may play repetitively, not because they prefer repetition, but because they require additional teaching to play variably.     

A behavioral perspective on college teaching

Much of the subject matter learned in college, particularly during the first two years, is taught in relatively large classes with text and lecture as the primary source of the information being learned. If students make effective and prolonged contact with these sources, they can acquire extensive verbal repertoires in many areas of knowledge. Unfortunately there are many other activities that compete for the typical student's study time. Several factors are often cited as variables that will support study behavior in competition with other activities, but the only powerful one available to the teacher is the exam grade, as it is related to the course grade. However, unless exams are clearly related to appropriate study behavior, require through and extensive coverage of the subject matter, occur frequently (preferably no less often than once a week), and are also clearly related to the course grade, even this factor will not generate prolonged and effective study behavior. Effective college teaching is essentially a form of aversive control, but if done properly the aversiveness is quite mild, and such aversive control can be responsible for the development of large and valuable intellectual repertoires.     

Reinforcing capabilities of television distortion

The effectiveness of television distortion as a negative reinforcer was analyzed. Contingency arrangements involving television distortion were found to be capable of (a) accelerating the work rate of a naive, mildly retarded subject on a simulated production-line task involving card-sorting, and (b) reducing gross hyperactivity of a mildly retarded subject. An escape-avoidance contingency was arranged for the production-line behavior of the first subject and a punishment contingency for the hyperactive behavior of the second subject. Television distortion appears to be an effective and practical negative reinforcer for use in behavior modification.     

Canonical Correlation and Chi-Square: Relationships and Interpretation

A 2 × 2 chi-square can be computed from a phi coefficient, which is the Pearson correlation between two binomial variables. Similarly, chi-square for larger contingency tables can be computed from canonical correlation coefficients. The authors address the following series of issues involving this relationship: (a) how to represent a contingency table in terms of a correlation matrix involving r - 1 row and c - 1 column dummy predictors; (b) how to compute chi-square from canonical correlations solved from this matrix; (c) how to compute loadings for the omitted row and column variables; and (d) the possible interpretive advantage of describing canonical relationships that comprise chi-square, together with some examples. The proposed procedures integrate chi-square analysis of contingency tables with general correlational theory and serve as an introduction to some recent methods of analysis more widely known by sociologists.