Change in the premarital behavior and sexual attitudes of young Iranian women: From Tehran to Los Angeles

The aim of the investigation was to assess the extent to which young Iranian women in Los Angeles have retained their traditional values regarding premarital behavior and sexual issues and the extent to which they have identied with the liberal values introduced to them in the United States. The attitudes of young Iranian women in pre-Revolution Iran were compared with those of their counterparts in Los Angeles. According to the results, the social environment has played an important role in altering the sexual attitudes of those in this group.     

Psychometric characteristics of the Iranian Acculturation Scale

The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable and valid scale to measure acculturation of Iranian immigrants in Canada. The 20-item Iranian Acculturation Scale showed Cronbach alpha of .83. Item-total correlations ranged from .25 to .65. Four factors were extracted, based on responses from 119 Iranian immigrants (43 men and 76 women) living in Toronto. The scale tapped different acculturation dimensions, cultural identity, language, family-related attitude and family-related values. The longer these Iranian immigrants had lived in Canada, and the earlier the age of moving to Canada the better acculturation suggested by their scores.     

Consistency in attitude and behavior of women with a liberated attitude toward the rights and roles of women

The study was designed to determine the extent of consistency of attitude and behavior of women with liberated attitudes toward their rights and roles, and to identify determinants of inconsistency between attitude and behavior. The Attitude Towards Women Scale, Rotter's locus of control scale, the Ego-Strength Scale, the Self-Esteem Scale, the Liberated Behavior Questionnaire, and the Attitude of Family and Friends Questionnaire were administered to 242 women. Women with more liberated attitudes tended to act more liberated. Also, women with liberated attitudes tended to act more liberated if their close friends were liberated and if they themselves were more aware of leaders in the women's liberation movement. The personality measures did not relate to the tendency to act liberated.     

Perceived Change of Values and Intention to Return Among Kibbutz People Who Emigrated From Israel

We examined perceived changes of values and intentions to return to Israel among 149 Kibbutz people who had lived for 3 or more years in New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. In answering standardized attitude questionnaires, participants reported significantly less general agreement today with Kibbutz values, but more support for the idea that Israel should compromise on occupied territories and more support for the idea that people should live where they choose. Political opinions also moved toward more liberal attitudes. Most participants intended to return to Israel without specifying a clear time frame. Values were significantly associated with behavioral intentions, with those endorsing Zionist values the most likely to report that they would return to Israel in times of war or peace. Results suggested acculturation to American society and political opinions.     

Premarital sexual, child rearing, and family attitudes of Iranian men and women in the United States and in Iran

Sexual, child rearing, and family attitudes of 160 Iranian immigrants in the United States (61 men, 99 women) and 97 Iranians (55 men, 42 women) in Iran were compared. Iranians in the United States in general, and women in particular, compared with their counterparts in Iran, expressed more permissive attitudes toward premarital sex and sex education, more tolerance toward homosexuality, and a greater acceptance of marital dissolution. Iranians in both countries assigned a high value to the maternal role and to family loyalty but did not endorse unrestricted freedom for youngsters. Influences of attitudinal disparity on interpersonal and family relationships are discussed, and implications for marriage counseling and family therapy are suggested.     

Prejudice Toward Contemporary Outgroups as a Generalized Attitude

The interrelatedness of attitudes toward homosexuals, Blacks, women, and old people was studied, as well as attitude differences on demographic variables. Three hundred and nine White undergraduates responded to the Homosexual Attitude Scale, The Attitudes Toward Women Scale, Multifactor Racial Attitude Inventory, and two attitudes toward old people scales. Nine of the ten possible intercorrelations were significant beyond the .01 levels. Prejudice toward quite distinct outgroups appears to be a generalized attitude. Attitude differences were found on the demographic variables of sex, political party, and religion. Women expressed more tolerant attitudes than men toward all four outgroups studied. Republicans were more prejudiced toward homosexuals and women than were Democrats or Independents. Participants who identified themselves as Christians were less supportive of equality between the sexes than were Catholics, Protestants, or those with no religion Christians were also more prejudiced toward homosexuals than were Catholics or those with no religion.     

Personal and socio-economic variables in relation with attitudes towards planned family

The study purpose was to examine the relationships between various personal, demographic and socioeconomic variables and attitude towards family planning on a large sample. The sample included 300 cases, representing urban and rural and male and female compositions of the population of Agra District. The Attitude Towards Family Planning (ATFP) Scale by Kapoor (1973) was used to assess the attitudes toward family planning. Age had no relationship with attitude towards family planning but education and income had substantial positive relationships (r=.56 and .40, respectively, significant at .01 level), followed by occupation showing the higher the socioeconomic status of the respondent the more favorable the attitude. Family size was found to be inversely related with attitude, indicating respondents having more children may not have favorable attitudes. This was more the case with the female sex of the child.     

Attitude to primary prevention advice of the European Code against cancer in relatives of cancer patients: implications for the development of preventive programmes

Achieving a preventive attitude is the first step in eliminating cancer risk behaviours. This cross-sectional study evaluated the attitude towards the European Code against Cancer, in 3,031 relatives of cancer patients. The study looked for keys to improve attitude by means of educational interventions. Attitude was evaluated using a questionnaire with 63 items and a Likert's scale. Measured from -2 to +2 , the mean score was 0.905 [0.894 - 0.971]. Five per cent had a mean score under 0.38 and another 5% over 1.46. A multivariate analysis found that age, sex and level of education were significantly associated with attitude: young men with a low cultural level were those with the lowest preventive attitude. The family history of cancer was not associated with attitude. Educational interventions should modify the perceived advantages of smoking and drinking, and the disadvantages related to preventive diet and sun and workplace protection.     

Attitudes toward intimate partner violence in dating relationships

Prevention of intimate partner violence on college campuses includes programs designed to change attitudes, and hence, a scale that assesses such attitudes is needed. Study 1 (N = 859) cross validates the factor structure of the Intimate Partner Violence Attitude Scale-Revised using exploratory factor analysis and presents initial validity data on the scale. In Study 2 (N = 687), the obtained three-factor structure (Abuse, Control, Violence) is tested using confirmatory factor analysis, and it is shown to be concurrently related to assault in romantic relationships and to predict psychological aggression 14 weeks later. The findings are discussed in the context of how understanding and modifying attitudes assessed by the Intimate Partner Violence Attitude Scale-Revised may improve interventions aimed at reducing intimate partner violence.     

Exploring the factors contributing to empowerment of Turkish migrant women in the UK

This study examined the role of demographic factors (length of stay, education and language level), perceived discrimination, social support, four acculturation attitudes, and psychological distress in predicting empowerment among Turkish migrant women in the UK. The study sample comprised 248 Turkish migrant women (mean age: 34.38; SD: 7.6) living in London. Self-report questionnaires were used to assess empowerment, social support, acculturation attitude and psychological distress. The study hypothesized that perceived discrimination; acculturation attitudes of separation, assimilation and marginalization; and psychological distress would be negative predictors of empowerment and that social support and an integration acculturation attitude would be positive predictors of empowerment. To some extent, the study findings supported this hypothesis. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated psychological distress to be the most significant predictor of empowerment, with other significant predictors including level of education and social support. More specifically, lower levels of psychological distress and higher levels of education and social support appeared to predict greater empowerment. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that level of education and social support may function as protective factors and that psychological distress may function as a risk factor for empowerment in the migration context. The paper discusses the findings of this study in relation to the previous literature and notes their implications for future research and practice.     

Acculturation and suicide attitudes: a study of perceptions about suicide among a sample of Ghanaian immigrants in the United States

To investigate whether a relationship exists between acculturation and attitudes about suicide, 81 Ghanaian immigrants living in the U.S. who responded to a mail inquiry were selected to participate in the current study. This particular immigrant sample was chosen because although they represent a rapidly growing group in the U.S., they have been rarely studied. Respondents consisted of 42 women and 36 men (3 did not identify their sex), with a mean age of 29.5 yr. (SD = 10.6). Participants completed measures of acculturation and attitudes about suicide. Results indicated significant correlations between length of residency in the United States and negative suicide attitudes, and also between psychological acculturation and negative suicide attitudes. No significant relationship was found between behavioral acculturation and suicide attitudes. Furthermore, length of residency was a stronger predictor of suicide attitudes than other subjective measures of acculturation. Implications and suggestions for further research are discussed.     

Rape Myths and Social Distance Toward Sex Offenders and Victims among Therapists and Students

This study was designed to investigate the relationships between gender role stereotypes, rape myths, and social distance from sex offenders and sex crime victims among students and therapists. A Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, an Attitude Variables Questionnaire, and a Social Distance Scale were administered to 125 female social science students and 51 female therapists. The findings validated our hypothesis: traditional gender role attitudes and belief in rape myths were positively related to social distance. Although therapists were willing to be in social contact with both victims and offenders to a much greater degree than were students, both groups expressed a decline in willingness to have social contact with victims and offenders, especially when the relationships were closer and more intimate. It seems that three decades after the first studies of rape myths, prejudices and stereotypes concerning rape and rape victims still exist.     

Sorority and Fraternity Membership and Religious Behaviors: Relation to Gender Attitudes

This study was designed to explore gender attitudes and religious behaviors among sorority/fraternity (S/F) and non-S/F undergraduates. Two hundred and seventy-nine participants completed the Gender Attitude Inventory (GAI, a multidimensional gender attitudes instrument), items that assessed religious behaviors (i.e., attendance in a place of worship and frequency of prayer), and a measure of social desirability. Overall, it was found that fraternity members, compared to sorority and non-S/F members, held more stereotypical gender attitudes. Specifically, the results suggest that fraternity members tend to accept stereotypical beliefs about women and male heterosexual violence toward women; endorse casual sex by women; reject women's political leadership; oppose women's rights; and believe in differential work roles. Attendance in a place of worship and prayer were related to greater disapproval of casual sex by women. Non-S/F members who prayed at least weekly reported slightly higher condemnation of homosexuality than S/F members did.     

Prenatal and postnatal anxiety in Mexican women giving birth in Los Angeles

Examined psychosocial factors related to prenatal and postnatal anxiety in 291 primiparous Mexican women giving birth in Los Angeles. Characteristics of health care providers preferred by more anxious and less anxious women were also assessed. Higher prenatal anxiety was associated with less desire for an active role during labor, lower assertiveness, higher pain expectation at delivery, lack of support from family members other than the husband, and preferences for health care providers who are female and Latino. All groups of women preferred health care providers who provided good medical explanations and who were knowledgeable, friendly, and sympathetic. Postnatal anxiety was significantly lower than prenatal anxiety. Negative attitudes toward the baby and number of complications during labor and delivery, however, were related to postnatal anxiety adjusted for prenatal anxiety.     

Psychometric critique of acculturation psychology: the case of Iranian migrants in Norway

The presumptions, terminology, psychometrics, statistical analyses, and ethics of the fourfold acculturation paradigm are criticized in detail. Illustrative data came from Iranian refugees in Norway (N = 80) answering: 1) the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), 2) Zung's Self-Rating Depression Scale (ZSRDS), 3) ipsative fourfold scales of Integration, Assimilation, Separation, and Marginalization, 4) orthogonal scales of attitudes towards Norwegian and Iranian cultures, measured independently and using balanced reverse-keying, and 5) ipsative forced-choice preferences for cultural practices of Norway, Iran, both, or from other societies as well. Iranians in Norway favored global multiculturalism and, as a group. did not show distress. The SWLS and ZSRDS were correlated, but the measures of acculturation failed to replicate one another. As unconstrained ipsative measures, the fourfold scales showed acquiescence response bias contamination and doubtful operationalization of scale constructs. Recommendations are discussed for improving acculturation research.     

Acculturation Attitudes of Potential Emigrants: Jewish Youths in Russia

The present paper investigates the acculturation attitudes of potential emigrants and their relationship to value priorities, cultural identifications, and psychological well-being. The results confirm that potential emigrants have a well-formed system of acculturation attitudes and that integration is the predominant acculturation attitude of the majority of potential emigrants. Preference for acculturation attitudes other than integration is associated with the psychological distress of potential emigrants. The research confirms that personal value preferences underlie acculturation attitudes of potential emigrants, thus indicating that each acculturation attitude allows accomplishment of different motivational goals in the situation of emigration. Cultural identifications of Jewish potential emigrants in Russia are discussed in light of their relationships with value priorities and acculturation attitudes.     

At the Crossroads: Racial and Womanist Identity Development in Black and White Women

This study explored the hypothesis that womanist identity and racial identity development are related. The racial identiy and womanist identity attitudes of 214 women were measured using the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale, the White Racial Identity Attitude Scales (WRIAS), and the Womanist Identity Attitude Scale. Canonical correlation analysis was used to determine the nature of relationships among racial identity and womanist identity attitudes. Results showed that for Black women there was a significant relation between racial identity and womanist identity attitudes. Specifically, Internalization attitudes on the WRIAS were positively related to Level II (Encounter) and Level IV (Internalization) attitudes on the Womanist Identity Attitude Scale. Despite a larger number of White participants, no such relationship emerged for White women. Implications for theory, research, and counseling are discussed.     

Comparisons of female and male early adolescent sex role attitude and behavior development

This study contrasted female and male early adolescent sex role attitude and behavior development in an ecological context as defined by Bronfenbrenner. Data were the results of a state-wide survey of early adolescents and their parents. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to test both sex role attitude development and behavior development models. Only the models for attitude development were significant. The level of traditionalism of female sex role attitude development was significantly influenced by maternal employment, the level of traditionalism of the father's sex role attitudes in interaction with the amount of time he spent with his daughter, and chronological age. In contrast, the level of traditionalism of male sex role attitude development was significantly influenced by the level of traditionalism of the mother's sex role attitudes in interaction with the level of closeness to the mother that was reported by the son, and both mother's and father's perception of pubertal age. The implications of the findings for human development theory, early adolescence as a stage of development, and sex role theory and research are discussed.     

Birth control and low-income Mexican-American women: the impact of three values

This study examines how 3 particular sociocultural values affect Mexican-American women's attitude, knowledge, and use of birth control. Researchers interviewed 99 low-income married Mexican-American women, 48 of whom had a low level of acculturation and 51 of whom had a high level, focusing on the values of motherhood, male dominance, and sexual expression. While the low acculturation group showed a significant linear relationship between attitudes towards birth control and the 3 values, the high acculturation group failed to exhibit a similar relationship. The study also found that no significant relationship exists between knowledge of birth control and the aforementioned values. The sociocultural values, however, do explain a 30% variability in attitudes towards birth control among the women with low acculturation, as well as a 22% variability in birth control use. Although significant, the results do not fully account for the variability. The study suggests several possible explanations for the unaccounted variance: considering the complexity of the values involved, the instruments involved may have failed to fully uncover their effects; because they were normed on Anglo-Americans, the instruments may not have sensitive enough of Mexican-American attitudes; and finally, the study may have overlooked other important values. Nonetheless, the study points out definite differences in attitudes between high and low acculturation groups. Considering that Hispanic women -- particularly Mexican-American women -- experience a very high birthrate (double that of non-Hispanics), examining sociocultural values may give insights into better family planning methods for this group.     

Mexican-American adolescent sexuality and sexual knowledge: an exploratory study

This article reports the findings of a study designed to examine the sexual knowledge, attitudes, and practices of low-income Mexican- American adolescents. The participants in the study were all about to begin a sex education program in a community health organization in East Los Angeles. The study involved 84 adolescents aged 14-19, 97% of who identified themselves as Mexican-American (the remainder identified themselves as Latino). 51 of the subjects were female and 33 male. The participants completed a 43-item questionnaire concerning demographics, sexual experience and contraceptive use, knowledge of birth control methods, and attitudes towards sexuality and birth control. Only 18 (21%) of the subjects indicated ever having sex. But among this group, 83% reported not using contraception during their last intercourse, and 61% reported never using contraception. Only 22% reported using contraception regularly. Concerning the knowledge of different birth control methods,many of the participants were able to list several methods, but their responses indicated a lack of accurate and specific knowledge about contraceptive methods. In addition to the 43-item questionnaire, 27 of the subjects also completed a sexual and contraceptive knowledge questionnaire. The topics included contraceptive effectiveness, the menstrual cycle, and fertilization. The scores on the questionnaire were low, with an average score of 33% of correct answers. Finally, all 84 participants responded to a sexual attitude questionnaire, which revealed a generally traditional attitude toward the importance of have children, virginity, and the relationship between sex and love.