An empirical examination of sex differences in scoring preschool children's aggression

Sex differences in adults’ observations and ratings of children’s aggression was studied in a sample of preschool children (N = 89, mean age = 44.00 months, SD = 8.48). When examining the direct observations made by trained observers, male observers, relative to female observers, more frequently recorded aggressive bouts, especially of boys. On rating scales assessing aggression, trained male raters also gave higher aggressive ratings than female raters. Lastly, we compared the ratings of trained female raters and female teachers on the same scale and found no differences. Results are discussed in terms male raters’ and observers’ prior experiences in activating their experiential schemata where males’ greater experience in aggression, relative to that of females, leads them to perceive greater levels of aggression.     

明道藏有关文昌梓潼帝君文献考述

本文就明代道藏内有关文昌梓潼帝君的典籍作了考述,分别考证它们的鸾降或编写年代、作者等,指出正文与序或附录情况各自不同;从道教文献学的角度侧重探讨宋元间梓潼神这种文化现象与道教的关系,并订正<道藏提要>相关条目的讹漏.     

Sex as a status characteristic: An examination of sex differences in locus of control

The conceptualization of sex as a status characteristic has been recently advanced (Meeker & Weitzel-O'Neill, 1977) as an explanatory principle for the apparently inconsistent findings regarding the relationship between sex and role specialization (e.g., the task/expressive distinction). This study is concerned with the validity of sex-as-status hypothesis and its potential generality examined in the context of research on locus of control. It is argued that sex differences in this variable may represent a special case of a more general pattern of relationships between status differentiations and locus of control. Conceived as realistic responses to position in the social hierarchy, beliefs in internal control are expected of higher status persons, while an external orientation is anticipated for individuals of lower status. This proposition has been empirically tested in a sample of Israeli college students. The findings lend support to the hypothesis, showing that females' tendency to external orientation is reinforced if they come from lower-class families; correspondingly, males' a priori internal orientation is more sharply pronounced if they come from the higher social classes. The theoretical appeal of the sex-as-status hypothesis vis-à-vis some alternative perspectives is discussed.     

An examination of sex differences in social support among older men and women

This paper is designed to empirically investigate sex differences in social support. Several types of sex differences are examined, including quantity and quality of support, the relationship between quantitative and qualitative measures of support, the number and source of support provided and received, and the relative predictive power of quality and quantity of support on well-being. The data are taken from the Supports of the Elderly, a national survey of older people (Kahn and Antonucci, 1984). Included in the present study are 214 men and 166 women ranging in age from 50 to 95 who are married and have at least one child. The analyses reveal that women have larger networks and receive supports from multiple sources, while men tend to rely on their spouses exclusively. Men report greater satisfaction with marriage than women. Quantitative supports are more related to qualitative supports for women than for men. For both sexes, the quality of support rather than the quantity of support has significantly greater effects on well-being; both the quantity and quality of social support have a greater impact on the well-being of women compared to men.     

An examination of the assumptions of specialization, mental disorder, and dangerousness in sex offenders

Sex offenders have been singled out for differential treatment by the legal and mental health systems. This article attempts to inform law reform efforts and criminal justice mental health policy by examining the assumptions underlying differential legal and mental health treatment of sex offenders. These assumptions include the theories that sex offenders are mentally disordered and in need of treatment, specialists in sex crimes, and more dangerous than other criminal offenders. Empirical findings demonstrate that sex offenders are not specialists in sex crimes and are not mentally disordered. Examination of past research suggests that sex offenders are not at more risk than other criminal offenders to commit future sex crimes. Implications of research findings for selective prosecution of sex crime cases, mental health policy, sex offender legislation, and predictions of future dangerousness are discussed. Proposals for future research needs and law reform are presented.     

Beauty is in the sex of the beholder: An examination of the effects of interviewer characteristics on assessments of respondent attractiveness

Research exploring the effects of physical attractiveness frequently assesses attractiveness by employing subjective appraisals by independent raters. However, there is reason to believe that rater characteristics – especially their sex – may systematically bias subjective ratings of physical attractiveness. The current study explores this possibility by analyzing data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 13,330). Analyses of these data revealed that ratings of physical attractiveness are significantly influenced by the sex of the interviewer/rater. Specifically, male raters were significantly less likely than female raters to assess males as attractive, very attractive, and very unattractive. The results are explained within the context of evolutionary psychology and illustrate a methodological concern for research on physical attractiveness.     

Beauty is in the sex of the beholder: An examination of the effects of interviewer characteristics on assessments of respondent attractiveness

Research exploring the effects of physical attractiveness frequently assesses attractiveness by employing subjective appraisals by independent raters. However, there is reason to believe that rater characteristics – especially their sex – may systematically bias subjective ratings of physical attractiveness. The current study explores this possibility by analyzing data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 13,330). Analyses of these data revealed that ratings of physical attractiveness are significantly influenced by the sex of the interviewer/rater. Specifically, male raters were significantly less likely than female raters to assess males as attractive, very attractive, and very unattractive. The results are explained within the context of evolutionary psychology and illustrate a methodological concern for research on physical attractiveness.     

Sexual harassment expanded: An examination of the relationships among sexual harassment,sex discrimination,and aggression in the workplace

We hypothesized that sexual harassment is part of a broader behavioral family including aggression and discrimination. We examined whether the relationships between these types of mistreatment can be represented well by a general factor that relates to other workplace variables. Evidence from military datasets showed that sexual harassment, sex discrimination, and workplace aggression can be conceptualized as a more general factor that functioned well in an integrated model of sexual harassment and was experienced differently by men and women. Thus, there is utility in examining these types of mistreatment both together and independently, both for research and prevention purposes.     

Perceptions and attitudes to sexual harassment: an examination of sex differences and the sex composition of the harasser–target dyad

This study examines the role of sex in determining attitudes toward sexual harassment (SH) and perceptions of SH, and studies the extent to which attitudes toward SH predict perceptions of SH by sex. All informants (146 men and 160 women) completed three questionnaires: personal information; perceptions of SH, including cases with variations on the perpetrators and victims' sex; and attitudes toward SH, with a male, female, or unspecified victim. The findings point to significant sex differences in the perception of behaviors as SH. Women were less tolerant of SH regardless of the victim's sex. In all cases, less tolerant attitudes toward SH predicted a stronger perception of behaviors as manifesting SH. In addition, women tended to perceive male harasser/male target behaviors as SH more than men.     

"插秧偈"小考

至少在元末明初即已出现的"插秧偈",在世间流传的过程中,其作者问题开始罩上了迷雾,其内容也出现了变异.本文根据历代典籍的相关记载,对该偈的演变源流作了较为详细的考证,并论及了其所蕴含的意义.     

An examination of regifting

This study develops an operational definition of the phenomenon of regifting. Gifting refers to the act of giving something to someone else without an expectation of compensation. Regifting is similar to gifting in that there is no expectation of compensation, but the gift itself differs in that it is one previously given to the giver. This study uses previous literature on established gift‐giving themes to explore regifting's meaning, importance, and implications to consumer research. In‐depth interviews and focus groups aid in the discovery of themes within regifting and regifting motivations, as well as those within relationships between the regifter and recipient. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The pleasures of sex: An empirical investigation

This study examined associations between the pleasurability of various sexual activities and behavioural experience with these activities. Participants were 145 female and 78 male undergraduates. Participants rated the pleasurability of various sexual activities (vaginal intercourse, anal intercourse, receiving oral sex, performing oral sex, masturbation by a partner, and self-masturbation) and answered questions about their experience with these sexual activities. Vaginal intercourse, receiving oral sex, and being masturbated by a partner received the highest,pleasure ratings. For behaviours other than vaginal intercourse and receiving oral sex, pleasure ratings were significantly higher among respondents who had engaged in the activity. Pleasure ratings for several different sexual behaviours were intercorrelated. Participants who scored high on a pleasure index were more sexually experienced, engaged in more frequent sexual activity, and reported having more sex partners. Results are interpreted within the context of an evolutionary theory which suggests that pleasure motivates sexual behaviour.     

Factor comparison: An examination of three methods

Three coefficients of factor similarity were examined with regard to their behaviour within four sets of data. Two simple methods using Pearson r correlations and Tucker Congruence coefficients were compared with a more complex method given by Kaiser, Hunka and Bianchini (1971). Three of the data sets involved the use of 100 random data matrices, the fourth was that provided by the Eysencks' work on cross-cultural differences in personality using the EPQ. Drawbacks with each other coefficient were apparent from the results, with the Kaiser et al. coefficient being capable of the most misleading results overall. However, use of the mean solution cosine in addition to the variable pair cosines was suggested as a method of validating the Kaiser et al. coefficient. It was concluded that using the three coefficients simultaneously as a multiple indicator yielded the best solution to the problem. In addition, it was suggested that other psychometric indicators should be employed to increase the degree of certainty of factor similarity.     

麻姑考辨

麻姑是道教著名的女仙,现可考的关于麻姑的最早记载见于《列异传》蔡经条,而麻姑形象的确立是在葛洪的《神仙传》中,后代关于麻姑的记载多源于《神仙传》。麻姑原型应当是远古流传于中国东方或南方的一个女仙。麻姑与南城麻姑山关系的确立是在唐玄宗时期。此后,麻姑山及其传说才开始名扬天下。     

Overanxious disorder: An examination of developmental differences

Differences between a clinical sample of younger (ages 5 to 11) and older (ages 12 to 19) children meeting DSM-III criteria for overanxious disorder (OAD) were examined. Younger and older children were compared in terms of (1) the rates of OAD diagnoses occurring in the two age groups, (2) sociodemographic characteristics, (3) symptom expression, (4) association with other forms of maladjustment, and (5) self-reported anxiety and depression. The prevalence of OAD diagnoses and sociodemographic characteristics did not differ. Although younger and older OAD children showed similar rates of most specific DSM-III OAD symptoms, older children presented with a higher total number of overanxious symptoms than younger children. Older children more frequently exhibited a concurrent major depression or simple phobia, whereas younger OAD children more commonly had coexisting separation anxiety or attention deficit disorders. Older OAD children reported significantly higher levels of anxiety and depression on self-report measures. Findings indicated that the expression of OAD varies by developmental level.     

Musical notation for the keyboard: An examination of stimulus-response compatibility

A recent stimulus-response compatibility model was used to provide a performance evaluation of an experimental notation for the keyboard in which pitch varies horizontally in visual space. One hundred and twenty subjects performed a choice reaction time task using either the horizontal notation or a more traditional vertical notation. Half the subjects in each notation group received white noise and half received pitch-varying feedback with responses. A horizontal display advantage was revealed when rules of the model were applied to data analyses. Further, the horizontal display advantage was not dependent on the nature of the feedback. In a second experiment, performance of musicians and non-musicians was compared using the horizontal and vertical notations. Musicians' performance was uniformly better than that of non-musicians, and did not differ with notation orientation. The findings support the use of non-traditional horizontal notations for novice performance on a keyboard instrument.     

Subfertility among the very intelligent: An examination of the American Mensa

Recent data on post-war birth cohorts in the U.S.A. show a negative relationship between IQ and fertility, both actual and expected. Previous investigators (e.g. Bajema, the Reeds and Waller) had found a slightly positive relationship for certain pre-war birth cohorts. This secular change in the relationship between IQ and fertility is replicated here for data on the membership of the American Mensa. Members born before the war exhibit a fertility below but close to that of the equivalent cohorts in the nation as a whole. Members born during and after the war exhibit a fertility that is substantially lower than that of the equivalent national cohorts. Apparently, rising fertility, which characterized the period in which the pre-war birth cohorts bore their children, causes a convergence in birth rates across IQ classes. Declining and/or low fertility, which characterizes the period in which the post-war birth cohorts are bearing their children, has the opposite effect, i.e. a divergence in birth rates across IQ classes, with the lower birth rates in the higher-IQ classes. The membership of Mensa may not be a representative sample of the high-IQ population as a whole, as it seems to attract a disproportionate number of low procreators even for this population. However, there is no reason to believe that changes in fertility rates across cohorts within Mensa, relative to changes in the national fertility rates, do not reliably reflect changes in fertility rates across cohorts within the high-IQ population of the U.S.A. as a whole, again relative to those of the nation, though these rates may be fluctuating around different means.