电子化谈判中的情绪效应

本研究从谈判者本身的情绪以及谈判对手的情绪两个方面着手,以224名被试和两个实验室实验考察电子化谈判中情绪的内部效应和外部效应.结果发现在电子化谈判中:(1)谈判者自身的情绪状态对谈判结果的影响显著；(2)谈判者的情绪是否与谈判对手有关,对谈判结果的影响不显著；(3)谈判对手的情绪状态,对谈判者的谈判结果影响显著；(4)谈判对手的情绪是否真实,对谈判者谈判结果的影响不显著；(5)谈判对手情绪和情绪的真实性这二者在谈判者的谈判结果上存在显著的交互效应.     

权力、社会动机和问责对谈判知觉、行为和结果的影响

采用工作面试的谈判任务,运用模拟实验方法,探讨了不同权力谈判者(人事经理与应聘者)的社会动机在不同问责条件下对谈判的影响。156名(78组)大学生按同性别陌生人进行一对一的模拟谈判。结果表明:(1)包含亲社会人事经理的谈判组整体的固定馅饼知觉偏差较小。(2)问责提高了相同社会动机谈判组的联合收益和问题解决行为,但减少了混合社会动机谈判组的联合收益和问题解决行为。     

和谐动机与整合性谈判结果*

人们追求人际和谐的动机具有双重性,一方面是为了促进和谐,另一方面是为了避免破裂,两种动机驱使人们在面对冲突时采取不一样的应对策略。那么,谈判作为一种与冲突密不可分的情境,谈判者的和谐的动机将会对他们的谈判结果产生什么影响呢？本研究整合和谐动机和谈判两方面的文献,探讨了在整合性谈判中两种不同的和谐动机与谈判者的行为以及谈判结果之间的关系。研究结果表明,1)在个体层面上,谈判者的促进和谐动机与其个体收益以及对谈判双方关系的评价正相关,而避免破裂动机与其个体收益以及对谈判双方关系的评价负相关；2)在谈判对子层面上,谈判双方总体的促进和谐与谈判双方的联合收益正相关。本研究不仅进一步论证了和谐动机的概念效度,而且从理论上论证了和谐动机与谈判的关系,对于谈判者具有实践意义。     

谈判者第一次出价对谈判破裂的影响：角色的调节作用

谈判者在大多数情况下都希望能顺利达成协议,但很多时候多种因素使得谈判进入僵局或者破裂。本研究利用模拟谈判的手段,综合考察了第一次出价对谈判破裂的影响。很多谈判者出于害怕吃亏或者希望获得更多收益,向对手提出较高的第一次开价。研究一证明第一次出价越高,谈判越容易失败。有趣的是,第一次开价的高低与谈判破裂之间的关系会受到谈判角色的影响,谈判者的权力不同会使得他们的第一次开价具有不同的作用。研究二证实,当谈判双方权力不对等时,第一次出价对谈判破裂的负面作用受到了权力的影响。弱者的第一次出价越高,谈判越容易破裂。中介分析表明,当弱者出价较高时,容易让对方感到竞争性过强,因此不愿意达成协议。本研究不仅丰富了谈判破裂和第一次出价的理论研究,而且对于谈判者具有实践意义     

回报谨慎对谈判过程和谈判结果的影响

回报谨慎是人们害怕在人际关系中被他人利用的一种信念。研究考察了回报谨慎对谈判者的动机倾向、谈判行为及谈判结果的影响。184人组成92个两人小组参加了一项模拟商业谈判,谈判前研究者成功地进行了回报谨慎的操纵,谈判结束后,参加谈判的人完成谈判协议和谈判后问卷。研究者假设,低回报谨慎的谈判者比高回报谨慎的谈判者在谈判中更可能持有合作倾向、更多地与谈判对手分享信息,研究者还预测回报谨慎与谈判双方的联合收益以及谈判后对谈判对手的看法都有关系。研究结果支持了上述假设。研究对从事商业谈判的人具有实际意义。     

影响整合式谈判的情境因素和过程因素

从“情境因素”和“过程因素”两个方面对整合式谈判影响因素的研究动态和研究成果进行了归纳和分析。其中“情境因素”是指在正式谈判一开始时就已经存在的因素,主要包括：（1）谈判者的文化价值观,如个人主义与集体主义、权力距离和沟通的高、低语境;（2）社会动机,研究谈判组的动机构成如何影响谈判过程和结果;（3）情绪因素,研究谈判中的积极情绪、消极情绪各自对达成整合式谈判的影响。对“过程因素”的研究考察了谈判沟通的过程,包括谈判过程中各种策略的使用频次、次序和谈判各个阶段的策略使用情况     

谈判中的时间因素

研究时间因素对谈判的影响有利于提高人们对时间重要性的认识,有效谈判策略的运用和整合结果的实现。时间因素对谈判者认知、行为和谈判结果的影响具体表现在：时间压力会降低谈判者的认知动机,使谈判者更加依赖认知启发式;暂停和中场休息是否会为谈判带来积极影响应该视不同的谈判事件和不同的心理状态而定;拉大谈判与结果实现之间的时间距离会提高谈判的共同结果,这可以从折扣效应和建构水平理论中得到解释。将来的谈判研究会进一步从时间向空间拓展     

群体关系与问责对信息共享意愿及谈判行为的影响研究

本研究就国人的群体关系与问责对谈判者行为及信息共享意愿进行考察,试图探讨文化对谈判者的影响。通过对128名在校大学生的模拟谈判实验,发现谈判者在群内谈判比在群际谈判时有更高的信息共享意愿和更少的强硬行为,群体关系和问责对信息共享意愿及主观利益冲突有交互效应。具体而言,高度问责时,谈判者在群内谈判比群际谈判时有更多的信息共享意愿;低度问责时,谈判者在群内谈判比群际谈判时有更少的主观利益冲突。     

试析商务谈判的非道德行为

商务谈判在现代经济活动中起着越来越重要的作用,但由于存在利益的冲突,所以谈判中常常存在一方或双方采取撒谎、欺诈、刻意隐瞒等非道德行为,本文着重分析的是非道德行为的产生、表现及其根源,分析了谈判者的有限诚实、选择道德标准及运用潜在影响力等,认为谈判双方的谈判本身的特征、“经济人”的人性、对情境知觉等因素导致非道德行为的产生。短期的合作中非道德行为更容易出现,但在长期的合作中,诚信必将是更好的选择。     

编码强度对字体大小效应的影响

本研究采用3个实验考察编码强度对字体大小效应的影响, 探讨由于知觉特征而引发的元认知错觉的内在产生机制(实验1)与有效的矫正措施(实验2和实验3)。结果发现:(1)大字体词语的知觉流畅性显著优于小字体, 并且贝叶斯多层中介分析结果表明, 知觉流畅性对字体大小效应起部分中介作用(实验1); (2)随着编码强度的增加, 由字体大小引起的学习判断错觉逐渐消失(实验2和实验3)。以上结果表明, 刺激的知觉特征(字体大小)对个体学习判断的影响, 随编码强度激活线索的增加而逐渐减弱。这一结果为真实教学情境中提高学习者的编码强度, 进而削弱学习判断对知觉特征线索的依赖, 并准确地监测自身的学习进程提供了科学依据。     

Beyond commitment: entrenchment in the buyer–seller exchange

A specific empirical finding in the buyer–seller literature – initially discovered by Moorman, Zaltman, and Deshpande and subsequently replicated by Grayson and Ambler – still suffers from incomplete explanation. In business-to-business marketing, why do some long-term buyers appear to trust their providers a great deal but not use the service provided? This research endeavours to more fully explain this ‘dark side’ of relationship selling by integrating work on the economic theory of entrenchment with Dwyer, Schurr, and Oh's seminal buyer–seller framework. The result is a modified conceptual model of the buyer–seller exchange in which potential seller entrenchment follows Dwyer et al.'s courting and commitment stages. Motivated by Dwyer et al.'s urging to examine their model using a negotiation lens, this research then borrows two contrasting orientations from the negotiation literature and offers propositions regarding how buyers and sellers interact at each stage of the exchange. In addition to enriching understanding of how buyers and sellers negotiate in the courting and commitment stages, this research is the first to offer insight into how both sides might negotiate when faced with seller entrenchment.     

Cultural norms and cultural agents in buyer–seller negotiation processes and outcomes

Although a good number of studies have significantly investigated the role of culture in buyer–seller negotiation processes and outcomes, fewer studies have investigated the role of individual negotiators and organizations in shaping the cultural norms that affect negotiation processes and outcomes. Through a multi-case study of buyer–seller negotiations in five organizations that are illustrative of the informal economy of Nigeria, the study unpacks the role of individuals and organizations in shaping the cultural norms that affect the scope and outcomes of negotiation in an emerging market economy. We find that buyers and sellers play the role of inhabiting cultural norms which in turn narrow the scope of the negotiation to price considerations. On the other hand, the templates used by organizations to execute selling activities either maintain or deter the cultural norms that influence negotiation outcomes. Insights from the study extend the literatures on institutional work, culture and negotiation, sales negotiation in emerging markets.     

The Balance of Power: Effects of Role and Market Forces on Negotiated Outcomes1

Role and market forces provide two sources of power that affect negotiated outcomes. To test their effects, 48 subjects participated in one of two negotiation markets that favored either buyers or sellers. Profit was influenced by both power sources: Buyers outperformed sellers, and negotiators in a favorable market outperformed negotiators in an unfavorable market. This effect was shown to be additive, indicating that the effects of the two sources of power were independent of one another. Whereas negotiators advantaged by market forces showed increases in profit over time, profits for negotiators disadvantaged by the market remained stable. Joint profit rose throughout both markets. However, this did not reflect increasing integrativeness in the markets; rather, the increase could be attributed to increases in high power negotiator profits. Markets became more distributive over time, and both the effectiveness and efficiency of bargaining decreased, particularly in the market favoring buyers.     

Integrative bargaining in a competitive market

The behavioral decision theory literature was used to identify the determinants of negotiation success in an integrative bargaining, free-market exercise. This study provides a novel methodology for studying negotiation. Specifically, buyers and sellers were allowed to engage in negotiations with as many competitors as possible in a fixed time period. The results suggest that integrative bargaining behavior increases and the market converges toward a Nash equilibrium as negotiators gain experience. In addition, the results suggest that (1) positively framed negotiators (“What will be my net profit from the transaction?”) complete more transactions than negatively framed negotiators (“What will be my expenses on this transaction?”), (2) negotiators who are given moderately difficult profit constraints in order to be allowed to complete a transaction achieve more profitable transactions than negotiators without such constraints, and (3) both framing and the existence of constraints affect the total profitability of the negotiator.     

Communication Media Preferences in Business-To-Business Transactions: An Examination of the Purchase Process

Although communication in marketing has been researched extensively, communication in buyer–seller exchanges during the sales process has received limited attention. This study examines the complexity of information interchange and buyers’ and sellers’ communication preferences for various media types during each stage of the purchase process. Findings reveal that, overall, buyers and sellers prefer face-to-face and telephone communications over other media types. For certain aspects of the sales process, computer-mediated communications, such as e-mail, serve an important role as a lowcost medium, whereas in other phases of the sales process, richer communication media are preferred by both buyers and sellers.     

The culture‐negotiation link.

Scholars have only recently begun to assess the strength with which culture affects negotiator communication, as compared with contextual or structural features of business negotiations. Although prior studies reveal important cross‐cultural differences in national negotiating style, they may not help us understand intercultural (mixed‐culture) settings. The crucial question is how heavily are international negotiators influenced by their own cultural values? When negotiating with a culturally disparate partner, what are the separate and cumulative effects of culture and contextual variables on negotiator communication? To answer these questions, the effect of culture (here, individualism‐collectivism) on integrative (information exchange) and distributive (fixed‐sum errors) negotiating is assessed in 32 intercultural dyads. In addition, the contextual effects of role (buyer vs. seller), preconceptions about negotiating (anticipated competition), and mutual adaptation (interdependence in information exchange) are examined. Preliminary results suggest that role requirements influence negotiators more heavily than culture. Supplemental analyses point to some potentially interesting buyer‐seller differences and suggest that information exchange is more a function of reciprocity than of cultural values.     

禀赋效应对产品更换决策的影响

以禀赋效应理论为研究基础, 通过两个情景实验对产品更换过程中买卖双方的决策心理进行了研究。实验1表明, 在以旧换新活动中新产品的买方对旧产品的价格有高估的倾向, 对新产品的价格有低估的倾向; 相反, 新产品的卖方对旧产品的价格有低估的倾向, 而对于新产品的价格有高估的倾向, 这说明产品更换决策中存在着双重的禀赋效应。实验2表明, 新产品的买方对旧产品的属性评价显著高于新产品的卖方, 对新产品的属性评价显著低于新产品的卖方, 说明属性评价也存在禀赋效应的特征。双重禀赋效应的存在从消费者行为的角度解释了为什么消费者会出现创新抵制行为。     

Implicit negotiation beliefs and performance: experimental and longitudinal evidence

The authors argue that implicit negotiation beliefs, which speak to the expected malleability of negotiating ability, affect performance in dyadic negotiations. They expected negotiators who believe negotiating attributes are malleable (incremental theorists) to outperform negotiators who believe negotiating attributes are fixed (entity theorists). In Study 1, they gathered evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the implicit negotiation belief construct. In Study 2, they examined the impact of implicit beliefs on the achievement goals that negotiators pursue. In Study 3, they explored the causal role of implicit beliefs on negotiation performance by manipulating negotiators' implicit beliefs within dyads. They also identified perceived ability as a moderator of the link between implicit negotiation beliefs and performance. In Study 4, they measured negotiators' beliefs in a classroom setting and examined how these beliefs affected negotiation performance and overall performance in the course 15 weeks later. Across all performance measures, incremental theorists outperformed entity theorists. Consistent with the authors' hypotheses, incremental theorists captured more of the bargaining surplus and were more integrative than their entity theorist counterparts, suggesting implicit theories are important determinants of how negotiators perform. Implications and future directions are discussed.     

Face threat sensitivity in negotiation: Roadblock to agreement and joint gain

Negotiation scholars and practitioners have long noted the impact of face, or social image, concerns on negotiation outcomes. When face is threatened, negotiators are less likely to reach agreement and to create joint gain. In this paper, we explore individual differences in face threat sensitivity (FTS), and how a negotiator's role moderates the relationship of his or her FTS to negotiation outcomes. Study 1 describes a measure of FTS. Study 2 finds that buyers and sellers are less likely to reach an agreement that is in both parties' interests when the seller has high FTS. Study 3 finds that job candidates and recruiters negotiate an employment contract with less joint gain when the candidate has high FTS, and that this relationship is mediated by increased competitiveness on the part of the high FTS candidates. The results support Deutsch's (1961) application of face theory ( Goffman, 1967) to negotiation.