Depressive personality: reliability, validity, and relation to dysthymia

The reliability and validity of Schneider's (1958) construct of depressive personality was evaluated in a sample of 177 outpatients, who were administered structured diagnostic and family history interviews, an extensive battery of inventories, and a 6-month follow-up assessment. The criteria for depressive personality had moderate to good interrater reliability, internal consistency, and test-retest stability, and the assessment of depressive personality traits was not influenced by patients' clinical states. In addition, preliminary support for the convergent and discriminant validity of the depressive personality construct was obtained. Although there were significant relations between the depressive personality and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed. and rev. 3rd ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1980, 1987) diagnoses of dysthymia, the depressive personality was not entirely subsumed by existing mood disorders.     

Construct validity of the relationship profile test: three-year retest reliability and links with core personality traits, object relations, and interpersonal problems

The Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein & Languirand, 2003) is a 30-item self-report measure of destructive overdependence, dysfunctional detachment, and healthy dependency. Previous research has shown that the 3 RPT subscales have adequate internal consistency, good retest reliability over 23 and 85 weeks, and good convergent and discriminant validity with respect to measures of attachment style, relatedness, gender role, self-concept, alexithymia, locus of control, need for approval, and life satisfaction. In this investigation, we assessed the 3-year retest reliability of RPT scores in a northeastern liberal arts college student sample (Study 1) and evaluated the convergent and discriminant validity of RPT scores in a southern university sample (Study 2). Results generally supported the long-term stability and convergent and discriminant validity of RPT scores but also pointed to some limitations of the measure. We discuss implications of these results and describe future research directions.     

The Beavers, McMaster and Circumplex clinical rating scales: a study of their sensitivity, specificity and discriminant validity

To assess the sensitivity and specificity of clinical rating scales from the Beavers, McMaster and Circumplex models of family functioning videotapes of sixty families engaging in a standardized family task interview were rated using the three rating scales. The sixty families included twenty containing a child with an emotional disorder, twenty containing a child with a mixed disorder of emotions and conduct, and twenty in which none of the children presented with clinically significant difficulties. The three rating scales accurately classified 85-90% of normal controls, 70-90% of cases containing a child with a mixed disorder of emotions and conduct, and 55-65% of families containing a child with an emotional disorder. On the rating scales, the Beavers and McMaster models showed particularly high levels of sensitivity in detecting clinical cases, whereas the Circumplex rating scale was particularly good at classifying non-clinical cases accurately.     

The Asian American values scale--multidimensional: development, reliability, and validity

The development of the 42-item Asian American Values Scale-Multidimensional (AAVS-M) is presented. In Study 1, data from 163 Asian American respondents were subjected to a principal components analysis, which reduced the initial set of 180 items to 42 items divided into 5 components: collectivism, conformity to norms, emotional self-control, family recognition through achievement, and humility. The data also revealed initial evidence of the AAVS-M total and subscale scores' reliability and validity. In Study 2, data from 189 Asian American respondents were subjected to a confirmatory factor analysis, which supported a hierarchical factor structure underlying the AAVS-M. Additional reliability and validity evidence of AAVS-M total and subscale scores were found. In Study 3, data from 38 Asian American respondents yielded evidence of AAVS-M total and subscale scores' test-retest reliability.     

Rating scales for hyperactivity: Concurrent validity,reliability, and decisions to label for the Conners and Davids abbreviated scales

Rating scales have become the instrument of choice in labeling and assessing change in behavior of hyperactive children. However, several criticisms have recently have levied against their use. The present investigation examined the concurrent validity, and inter- and intrarater reliability for the Abbreviated Teacer Questionnaire (ATQ, Conners, 1973) and the Rating Scales for Hyperkinesis (Davids, 1971). Sixteen teachers from two special and two regular schools (grades 1-4) rated 211 normal and 49 special children using both scales. High correlations were found suggesting excellent predictability between scales and considerable stability across time and rater. Lower scores on a subsequent rating relative to an initial rating were demonstrated, dependent on time between ratings but independent of (a) teacher expectation of treatment gains, (b) bias produced by rating selected children, and (c) whether children were hyperactive or normal. Use of initial and infrequent rating scores versus subsequent, closely spaced ratings was related to the rater's objective (e.g., diagnosis, treatment, or assessment).     

Convergent validity of the MCMI-III personality disorder scales and the MMPI-2 scales

The MCMI-III personality disorder scales (Millon, 1994) were empirically validated in a sample of prisoners, psychiatric inpatients, and outpatients (N = 477). The scale intercorrelations were congruent with those obtained by Millon, Davis, and Millon (1997). We conclude that our Flemish/Dutch version shows no significant differences with the original version of the MCMI-III as far as intercorrelations are concerned. Convergent validity of the MCMI-III personality disorder scales was evaluated by the correlational data between the MCMI-III personality disorder scales and the MMPI-2 clinical (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) and personality disorder (Somwaru & Ben-Porath, 1995) scales. Improved convergence was obtained compared with previous versions of the MCMI-I. Only the compulsive MCMI-III personality disorder scale remains problematic. The scale even showed negative correlations with some of the related clinical scales and with the corresponding personality disorder scales of the MMPI-2.     

Convergent validity of alternative MMPI-2 personality disorder scales

The Morey, Waugh, and Blashfield (1985) MMPI (Hathaway et al., 1989) personality disorder scales provided a significant contribution to personality disorder research and assessment. However, the subsequent revisions to the MMPI and the multiple revisions to the diagnostic criteria sets that have since occurred may have justified comparable revisions to these scales. Somwaru and Ben-Porath (1995) selected a substantially different set of items from the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) to assess Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) personality disorder diagnostic criteria. In our study, we compared the convergent validity of these alternative MMPI-2 personality disorder scales with respect to 3 self-report measures of personality disorder symptomatology in a sample of 82 psychiatric outpatients. The results suggested that Somwaru and Ben-Porath's scales are as valid as the original Morey et al. scales and might be even more valid for the assessment of borderline, antisocial, and schizoid personality disorder symptomatology.     

The new MAACL scales with adolescents: preliminary reliability and validity determinations

This study reports on the reliability and concurrent validity of both the trait and state forms of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL) with a high school population, age range of 14-16 years and educational range of 9th and 10th grades (N = 403). Alphas of the four scales (anxiety, depression, hostility, and positive affect) ranged from .67 to .91. Correlations with a check-list of stress-related symptoms and an inventory of the number of extracurricular activities in which the students participated were significant and in the expected direction. Means and standard deviations on the MAACL scales were similar to those of college students. Sex differences were found on some of the scales. The findings indicate that the MAACL is sufficiently reliable and valid to warrant additional use with an adolescent population.     

On the nature of intraindividual personality variability: reliability, validity, and associations with well-being

Intraindividual personality variability is a construct that reflects the extent to which a person's self-reported personality changes over time or across social roles. Past studies have linked variability with important outcomes such as adjustment and well-being. However, existing variability measures conflate mean-level variance with true change over time, and thus these past findings are questionable. Three studies were conducted to examine the psychometric properties of existing variability indexes and to develop a new index that does not suffer from the problem of conflated variance. This new index is reliable and valid and can predict actual changes in self-reports over time. However, once mean-level variance is removed, intraindividual variability is no longer related to well-being.     

Goldberg's bipolar measure of the Big-Five personality dimensions: reliability and validity

A study was conducted to examine the relations between a recently developed measure of the Big-Five personality dimensions (Goldberg, 1992) and several other instruments: the Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1968), the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence and Helmreich, 1978), and the Masculine Behavior Scale (Snell, 1989). The results indicated that Goldberg's Big Five questionnaire was correlated in predictable ways with these personality instruments. In addition, other results revealed that the Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Emotional Stability scales on Goldberg's questionnaire were associated with a measure of psychological symptoms. The discussion focuses on how these findings provide corroborative evidence for the reliability and validity of Goldberg's bipolar adjective measure of personality traits, thereby supporting this instrument as a reliable and valid measure of the Big-Five personality dimensions.     

MMPI scales for DSM-III personality disorders: their derivation and correlates

Scales tapping the dimensions of personality disorder as represented in the DSM-III were derived using a combined rational/empirical strategy. The final version of the scales demonstrated both content validity as well as internal consistency. Correlations between the derived scales and between these scales and the original MMPI clinical scales were generally found to be in the expected direction providing preliminary evidence of criterion related validity. It is suggested that the derived scales may represent an advance toward the reliable assessment of DSM-III personality constructs.     

Circumplex structure and personality disorder correlates of the Interpersonal Problems model (IIP-C): construct validity and clinical implications

This study assessed the construct validity of the circumplex model of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP-C) in Norwegian clinical and nonclinical samples. Structure was examined by evaluating the fit of the circumplex model to data obtained by the IIP-C. Observer-rated personality disorder criteria (DSM-IV, Axis II) were used as external correlates. The reliability of the IIP-C scales was acceptable and in the same range as in the original version. A multisample analysis strategy did not support an invariant circumplex model across the 2 groups. However, the estimated structures reflected mostly the same circular pattern of a quasi-circumplex model in the 2 groups. Departures from the ideal model were of negligible practical significance. The validity results examining personality disorder correlates of the IIP-C generally conformed to predictions, providing direct evidence for agreement between self-report and expert judgments of interpersonal problems.     

Addicted patients with personality disorders: traits, schemas, and presenting problems

We evaluated the association of Structure Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV Axis II (SCID-II) severity and personality traits, early maladaptive schemas, and presenting symptoms in 41 methadone-maintained patients meeting criteria for either antisocial, borderline, avoidant, or depressive personality disorder. Correlational analyses indicated that the severity of each personality disorder was associated with a unique profile of presenting problems and underlying traits and schemas. The evaluation of multiple psychological indicators appears to be a useful method for case conceptualization and planning interventions within a promising individual therapy model that focuses both on substance abuse and psychiatric symptoms and maladaptive schemas and coping styles.     

Optimal number of response categories in rating scales: reliability, validity, discriminating power, and respondent preferences

Using a self-administered questionnaire, 149 respondents rated service elements associated with a recently visited store or restaurant on scales that differed only in the number of response categories (ranging from 2 to 11) and on a 101-point scale presented in a different format. On several indices of reliability, validity, and discriminating power, the two-point, three-point, and four-point scales performed relatively poorly, and indices were significantly higher for scales with more response categories, up to about 7. Internal consistency did not differ significantly between scales, but test-retest reliability tended to decrease for scales with more than 10 response categories. Respondent preferences were highest for the 10-point scale, closely followed by the seven-point and nine-point scales. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Examination of the reliability and validity of the personality assessment inventory

The reliability, discriminant validity, and construct validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) — a multidimensional self-report measure of abnormal personality traits — were examined within the Australian context. Subjects included 151 normals, 30 alcoholics, and 30 schizophrenic patients. A subsample of 70 nonpsychiatric adults responded to the PAI items twice over a test-retest interval of 28 days. The resulting median retest coefficient was 0.7, indicating less than optimal stability. The median alpha (KR₂₁) coefficient was 0.8, suggesting somewhat narrow measurement scales. A significant multivariate main effect was obtained across groups after the effects of age and gender were removed. Multiple comparisons for each of the PAI scales revealed significant differences between the respective groups, as discussed. A higher-order scale factoring did not strongly support the purported PAI structure. In reanalyses of the correlation matrices included in the Professional Manual, the purported PAI factor structure was unable to be replicated for the standardization clinical sample (N=1246), and a confirmatory factor analysis using the normative (validation) correlational data (N=1000) revealed poor fit indices, raising further concerns about construct validity.     

An extension of construct validity for personality scales using twin-based criteria

A twin-based analysis of personality inventory scales yields information relevant to construct validity. If scales validly measure dimensions influenced developmentally either by environmental factors common to cotwins or by genetic similarities, these influences should be apparent in patterns of intraclass correlations and within-pair variance ratios for monozygotic and dizygotic pairs. Criteria for construct validity derived from adolescent twin statistics are illustrated with Wiggins' MMPI Content Scales. A type of discriminant validity indicates that some scales are not distinct in terms of the influences of familial similarity. Sex differences are examined.     

Self- and peer perspectives on pathological personality traits and interpersonal problems

This study compares the relationship between personality disorders and interpersonal problems as obtained by self-report and peer-report measures. Participants (N = 393) were administered self- and peer-report versions of the Peer Inventory for Personality Disorder and the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems-64. Canonical analyses demonstrated similar relationships between personality disorder features and interpersonal problems as measured by either self or peer. Analyses between self and peer found little shared variance across sources, indicating a large method variance. Results indicate that although similar constructs are identified by self and peers in their understanding of personality pathology and associated interpersonal problems, self-report information overlaps very little with information obtained from peers, underscoring the importance of obtaining multiple sources of information.     

Difficulties in interpersonal relationships associated with personality disorders and axis I disorders: a community-based longitudinal investigation

A longitudinal study was conducted to investigate the association between Axis I and Axis II psychiatric disorders, interpersonal relationships, and global functioning among men in the community. Structured clinical interviews assessing Axis I and Axis II psychiatric disorders, global assessments of functioning, and questionnaires assessing social support, social conflict, and loneliness were administered to a community sample of 95 HIV+ and 45 HIV- men. The questionnaires were readministered 1 year later. Results indicated that (a) Personality disorders (PDs) and unipolar depressive disorders were associated with loneliness, social conflict, and low levels of social support after HIV status was controlled statistically; (b) PDs were associated with interpersonal and global impairment after HIV status and co-occurring Axis I disorders were controlled statistically; (c) Axis I disorders were associated with global impairment, but were not associated with interpersonal difficulties after HIV status and PDs were controlled statistically; (d) PDs, but not Axis I disorders, predicted increases in social conflict and global impairment after HIV status was controlled statistically; (e) PDs continued to predict increases in global impairment after both Axis I disorders and HIV status were controlled statistically; and (f) HIV+ men reported more loneliness, less social support, and had a higher prevalence of substance use disorders than HIV- men. The present findings are of particular interest because they suggest that PDs are associated with loneliness, social conflict, and a lack of social support among men in the community, whether or not Axis I disorders are present.     

Toward a model of self pathology underlying personality disorders: narratives, metacognition, interpersonal cycles and decision-making processes

If we want to explain the links between the various and heterogeneous elements--symptoms, dysfunctional forms of behavior and poor social functioning--making up personality disorders, we need model a self pathology that portrays dysfunctions, the links among them, and how their interactions maintain disorders over time. In our view, the most likely elements of self pathology are: a. problematic contents (thoughts and emotions)--experienced subjectively as states of mind and organized in the form of narratives; b. shortfalls in the ability, termed meta-cognition, to reflect on mental states, both of oneself and of others; c. pathogenic interpersonal schemas; and d. maladaptive decision-making processes. These elements get altered in the various personality disorders and interact to form typical pathological organizations. This article seeks to describe a model of self pathology in personality disorders and discuss its current scientific status based on a literature review that spans several disciplines. The model is illustrated with an example of how the pathogenic elements can interact to form personality disorder. Lastly, the limitations and advantages of the model are discussed.