The Relationship of Promotion Focus,Need for Cognitive Closure,and Categorical Accessibility in American and Hong Kong Chinese University Students

Categorical accessibility is a cognitive factor that limits the extent of creative conceptual expansion. In the present study, we sought to establish the categorical accessibility norms in five conceptual domains among American and Hong Kong Chinese university students. In addition, we predicted that the tendency to access normatively inaccessible exemplars in a conceptual domain is positively related to the motivation to maximize the likelihood of attaining positive outcomes (promotion focus) and negatively related to the need for cognitive closure. We obtained the predicted relationships among both American and Hong Kong Chinese university students. These findings were discussed in terms of their implications for promoting creativity across cultures.     

Extent of psychological differentiation and creativity.

Among the extensive array of studies relating Witkin's construct of psychological differentiation to many psychological functions and variables, none seem to have adequately tested its relationship to creativity, although these two variables have personality traits and development characteristics in common and require similar skills for effective performance. Eighty-five male high school students were separated according to Embedded Figures Test, and the extreme groups tested for creativity by eight factorially pure tests developed by Guilford, and by Schaefer and Anastasi's Biographical Inventory. Statistical procedures included analysis of covariance, analysis of variance, and a matrix of intercorrelations. With intelligence controlled, field-independent persons performed significantly better than field-dependent persons on measures of visualization, spontaneous flexibility, adaptive flexibility, and creativity in mathematics and science but not significantly better on the other six creativity tests.     

Does Cognitive Style Moderate Expected Evaluation and Adolescents' Creative Performance: An Empirical Study

Two studies investigated the effects of cognitive and school environmental factors on adolescents' creative performance. The first study tested the effects of expected evaluation and cognitive style on creativity among 89 high school students. The second study tested the effects of evaluation type and cognitive style on creativity among 92 high school students. Study 1 found main effects of expected evaluation and cognitive style on creativity. The interaction between expected evaluation and cognitive style was statistically significant. Under an experimental condition of expected evaluation, field‐dependent adolescents performed more creatively (i.e., higher originality) than those without expected evaluation. Study 2 uncovered main effects of expected evaluation type and cognitive style on creativity but no interactions between expected evaluation type and cognitive style. Adolescents performed better on the dimension of flexibility in a controlling evaluation condition, compared with adolescents in informational evaluation condition, and field‐independent adolescents showed more fluency and originality than field‐dependent adolescents. Together, this research provides a better understanding of the effects of expected evaluation and cognitive style on adolescents' creative performance. Implications for further research are discussed.     

Political Conservatism,Need for Cognitive Closure,and Intergroup Hostility

Two studies examined the interaction of political conservatism and the need for cognitive closure in predicting aggressiveness in intergroup conflict and hostility toward outgroups. In the first study, Polish participants indicated their preference for coercive conflict strategies in the context of a real‐life intergroup conflict. Only among participants who identify themselves as conservative, need for cognitive closure was positively and significantly related to preference for aggressive actions against the outgroup. In the second study, the predicted interaction was investigated in the context of the terrorist threat in Poland. The findings indicated that high in need for closure conservatives showed greater hostility against Arabs and Muslims only when they believed that Poland was under threat of terrorist attacks inspired by Islamist fundamentalism.     

Intelligence,divergent thinking,and creativity

Guilford's Alternate Uses, Plot Titles, and Consequences tests were given to 94 university students along with the Concept Mastery Test, a traditional measure of verbal intelligence. These measures were correlated with an inventory of creative activities and accomplishments. A composite index of ideational fluency correlated with four creativity indices: Crafts, Performing Arts, Math-Science, and Total Creativity, while the Concept Mastery Test correlated with three indices: Art, Literature, and Total Creativity. With the exception that verbal intelligence was a better predictor of creativity in literature, no statistical difference between the predictive accuracies of ideational fluency and verbal intelligence were found. The need to re-examine the widely accepted association of divergent thinking with creativity was discussed.     

Conservatism and cognitive ability

Conservatism and cognitive ability are negatively correlated. The evidence is based on 1254 community college students and 1600 foreign students seeking entry to United States' universities. At the individual level of analysis, conservatism scores correlate negatively with SAT, Vocabulary, and Analogy test scores. At the national level of analysis, conservatism scores correlate negatively with measures of education (e.g., gross enrollment at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels) and performance on mathematics and reading assessments from the PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) project. They also correlate with components of the Failed States Index and several other measures of economic and political development of nations. Conservatism scores have higher correlations with economic and political measures than estimated IQ scores.     

Role of personal endorsement of outgroup members' distinctive values and need for cognitive closure in attitude towards the outgroup

The present study was designed to examine the role of the perceived culture of the outgroup and the perceiver's cognitive style on the intergroup process. We conducted a survey among mainland Chinese college students to discover the role of their personal endorsement of Hong Kong Chinese's distinctive values and need for cognitive closure in predicting their attitude towards the Hong Kong Chinese outgroup. Results showed that mainland Chinese who gave a higher endorsement of Hong Kong Chinese values were more likely to show a positive attitude towards Hong Kong Chinese, especially for people with a higher need for cognitive closure. These results were discussed in terms of the function of shared social reality on the formation of positive intergroup attitude. Future directions for intergroup research were proposed based on these findings.     

Academic achievement in the Chinese context: the role of goals, strategies, and effort

Previous studies have suggested that Western constructs of academic motivation may operate in different ways in Asian contexts due to differences in the cultural environment. In the present study, the integrative effects of achievement goals, strategy orientations, and effort expenditure on achievement outcomes were examined among 1950 seventh-grade Chinese students in Hong Kong. Participants completed separate questionnaires for mathematics and English. Results for the two subjects were largely similar. There were significant positive relationships between mastery and performance goals, between cooperative and competitive orientations, as well as between understanding and memorizing strategies. Regression analyses further revealed that goals and strategies were highly predictive of effort expenditure, but only goals and effort significantly predicted achievement outcome, with strategies being barely significant. The need to further investigate how Chinese students reconcile the apparently antithetical orientations in learning as well as the effective strategies contributing to their learning is indicated.     

Sport injuries: relations to sex, sport, injured body region

Relationships among hand preference, nonverbal intelligence, and the monocular shifts of binocular focal point were studied in 33 men and 12 women university mathematics students. Ocular dominance was assessed with the Miles test. The monocular shift of binocular focal point for each eye was assessed with a modified Miles test. Hand preference was assessed on the Edinburg Handedness Inventory. Nonverbal intelligence was assessed with Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test. In a prior study, the percentage of left-eye preference had been reported to be greater for mathematics students than for nonmathematics students. In the present study there were positive correlations between hand preference and the sum of the monocular shifts of two eyes. In addition, there was a negative correlation between nonverbal intelligence and the sum of the monocular shifts of two eyes. As these resultssuggest that the sum of the monocular shifts of two eyes may be related to mathematical ability and nonverbal intelligence, further research with a larger sample including non-mathematics students is needed.     

Categories of insight and their correlates: An exploration of relationships among classic‐type insight problems,rebus puzzles,remote associates and esoteric analogies

A central question in creativity concerns how insightful ideas emerge. Anecdotal examples of insightful scientific and technical discoveries include Goodyear's discovery of the vulcanization of rubber, and Mendeleev's realization that there may be gaps as he tried to arrange the elements into the Periodic Table. Although most people would regard these discoveries as insightful, cognitive psychologists have had difficulty in agreeing on whether such ideas resulted from insights or from conventional problem solving processes. One area of wide agreement among psychologists is that insight involves a process of restructuring. If this view is correct, then understanding insight and its role in problem solving will depend on a better understanding of restructuring and the characteristics that describe it. This article proposes and tests a preliminary classification of insight problems based on several restructuring characteristics: the need to redefine spatial assumptions, the need to change defined forms, the degree of misdirection involved, the difficulty in visualizing a possible solution, the number of restructuring sequences in the problem, and the requirement for figure‐ground type reversals. A second purpose of the study was to compare performance on classic spatial insight problems with two types of verbal tests that may be related to insight, the Remote Associates Test (RAT), and rebus puzzles. In doing so, we report on the results of a survey of 172 business students at the University of Waikato in New Zealand who completed classic‐type insight, RAT and rebus problems.     

Motivational underpinnings of social influence in work settings: Bases of social power and the need for cognitive closure

This research explored the notion that the use and efficacy of influence tactics launched from different social power bases depends on influence agents' and recipients' need for cognitive closure. In three separate studies conducted in diverse organizational contexts, it was found that, while overall participants exhibited a preference for soft over hard social influence tactics, this preference becomes less pronounced for supervisors high (versus low) on need for closure and becomes more pronounced for supervisors low on the need for closure. Overall, soft tactics were more beneficial for subordinates' performance than hard tactics; however, the benefits of soft tactics decreased as a function of subordinates' need for closure. Finally, organizational outcomes were improved when recipients who were high (versus low) on the need for closure were exposed to “hard” power tactics and those low (versus high) in the need for closure were exposed to “soft” tactics. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cultural Difference in Stereotype Perceptions and Performances in Nonverbal Deductive Reasoning and Creativity

A total of 182 undergraduate students from China and the United States participated in a study examining the presence of stereotypical perceptions regarding creativity and deductive reasoning abilities, as well as the influence of stereotype on participants' performance on deductive reasoning and creativity in nonverbal form. The results showed that participants from both China and the United States believed that Americans have better creativity abilities than Chinese and that Chinese have better deductive reasoning skills than Americans. Significant cultural difference in the performances on the measures of creativity was found. The cultural difference in deductive reasoning was found between Chinese participants in China and the Caucasian (not the Asian) participants in the United States, which were somewhat congruent to the stereotypical perceptions. However, the study did not find that stereotypic perceptions directly influenced participants' performance on deductive reasoning and creativity.     

Academic Self-Schemas and their Self-Congruent Learning Patterns: Findings Verified with Culturally Different Samples

This paper reported two studies investigating high school students’ academic self-schemas in learning mathematics and their self-congruent learning engagement patterns. Using cluster analyses, Study 1 located two contrasting groups of students holding positive and negative self-schemas in learning mathematics among Chinese participants. MANOVA analyses showed that these two groups of Chinese schematic students differed from each other in the use of achievement goals, approaches to learning, and expected levels of performance. These findings were validated and extended in Study 2 using a culturally different sample, Australian students. Again, cluster analyses successfully classified Australian participants into positive and negative schematic clusters. It was also found that these two groups of schematic students approached learning mathematics in a self-congruent manner similar to those found in Study 1. The converging results in both studies lent empirical support to the theoretical formulation of positive and negative schematic students and the validity of using the self-schema concept to investigate motivation and learning. The differences in their learning engagement patterns were discussed in terms of students’ different academic self-schemas in learning mathematics.     

Opening the Closed Mind: The Effect of Exposure to Literature on the Need for Closure

The need for cognitive closure has been found to be associated with a variety of suboptimal information processing strategies, leading to decreased creativity and rationality. This experiment tested the hypothesis that exposure to fictional short stories, as compared with exposure to nonfictional essays, will reduce need for cognitive closure. One hundred participants were assigned to read either an essay or a short story (out of a set of 8 essays and 8 short stories matched for length, reading difficulty, and interest). After reading, their need for cognitive closure was assessed. As hypothesized, when compared to participants in the essay condition, participants in the short story condition experienced a significant decrease in self-reported need for cognitive closure. The effect was particularly strong for participants who were habitual readers (of either fiction or non-fiction). These findings suggest that reading fictional literature could lead to better procedures of processing information generally, including those of creativity.     

The effects of competition on achievement motivation in Chinese classrooms

Background: Laboratory studies have consistently found that competition induces performance goals and affects learning motivation. However, the ecological validity of these results is yet to be established. There is a need for investigation of whether the results hold in both the classroom context and non‐Western culture. Aim: The study investigated the effects of competition on learning motivation among Chinese students in an authentic classroom setting. Sample: The participants were 52 students of grade 7 from two Hong Kong secondary schools. Method: They were randomly assigned to either competitive or non‐competitive conditions in a 2‐hour Chinese typewriting course. Results: Students in the competitive condition performed better in easy tasks than their counterparts in the non‐competitive condition. However, they were more performance‐oriented and more likely to sacrifice learning opportunities for better performance. They were also prone to have worse self‐evaluation after failure. Although there were no statistically significant differences between the two conditions in task enjoyment and achievement attribution, the direction of the differences was consistently unfavourable to students in the competitive condition. Conclusion: The findings were consistent with the predictions of goal theory. Competitiveness induces performance goals and worse self‐evaluation after failure among Chinese students in a classroom setting, as was found with Western students in a laboratory setting.     

An Investigation of the Relationship between Age,Achievement, and Creativity in Mathematics

In this exploratory study, I investigate the relationship between age, knowledge, and creativity in mathematics, by looking at to what extent does grade level, controlled for mathematical achievement, influence mathematical creativity and what characterizes the relationship between grade level, mathematical achievement and mathematical creativity. This was accomplished in two steps. In the first part, 301 students, 184 grade eight students and 117 grade eleven students, were given a creative mathematics test. A 3 × 2 ANOVA indicates that the older students were more creative; however, there was a significant interaction effect between grade level and achievement in mathematics on mathematical creativity. In the second part, an inductive content analysis was performed on the solutions of high achievers in grade eleven and grade eight. The results indicate that high achievers in grade eight are more creative than high achievers in grade eleven, but the nature of the task mediates the relationship between creativity and knowledge.     

Individual and Environmental Influences on Chinese Student Creativity

Primarily using self-report questionnaires and psychometric tests in a sample of 357 Chinese high school students, this study examines how both individual and environmental factors can independently predict student creativity as measured by three different methods, including two product-orientated measures (story completion and collage making), two divergent thinking measures (circle task and picture completion), and one self-report inventory on divergent thinking attitudes. Two different types of theoretical models — the cognitive approach and confluence approach — are compared and contrasted. Based on previous research, this study uses the confluence approach to investigate the influences of individual (i.e. intelligence, personality, motivation, thinking styles, and knowledge) and environmental (i.e., school and family environment) factors on creativity. The results have confirmed the major hypothesis that both individual and environmental factors play decisive roles in Chinese student creativity. Implications of these findings are discussed. This paper also calls for a serious consideration of research on environmental influence on creativity and various mechanisms of this influence.     

Cultural and Bilingual Influences on Artistic Creativity Performances: Comparison of German and Chinese Students

Empirical research on the relationship between culture and creativity has thus far yielded no consistent results. Investigations of the differences are mostly post-hoc, and results are inconclusive. A creativity-value-oriented theory is proposed to explain cultural differences, as an alternative to ethnic and language effects. This study was conducted to compare the performances of artistic creativity of Germans and Chinese. Results revealed that the four groups of students examined (German students of Caucasian descent, German students of Asian descent, Chinese students studying abroad, and Chinese students studying in China) differed in their artistic creativity. German participants (Caucasian Germans and Asian Germans) produced more creative and aesthetically pleasing artwork than did their Chinese counterparts (Chinese studying abroad and domestic Chinese). This difference was observed by both German and Chinese judges. There no significant subgroup differences in creative performances—no difference between the two German groups, and no difference between the two Chinese groups. Finally, although there were significant differences between German judges, Chinese judges studying abroad, and domestic Chinese judges in judging the artworks, these were not due to a preference for artwork from students from their own cultural background. Chinese and German judges roughly agreed on what constitutes creativity. These results suggest that cultural differences affect creative performances.     

Traditional Education and Creativity in an Afro-Arab. Islamic Culture: The Case of Sudan

This study investigated the differing effect upon creativity of traditional and modern education in the Sudan. The salient characteristics of the two types are presented, with a brief discussion of their likely effects. Four creativity tests, suitably modified for local conditions, were administered to 264 male and female students, with an age range of 15–20 years. The results indicated that the group receiving modern education performed significantly better than the traditionally educated group on two of the four creativity tests, but with equal performance on one test. The traditionally educated group performed significantly better on the fourth test. The discussion suggests there are a number of factors, both sociocultural and methodological, which may account for these findings.     

The influence of gender, handedness, and performance level on specialized cognitive functioning

Individual differences in performance on neuropsychological tests were analyzed across age (prepubertal to adult), gender, and handedness groups and examined for performance level as a moderating variable. No differences were observed for the factor structure of these tests across ages and between genders, suggesting similar cognitive structures among these groups. Significant differences in performance were observed between males and females and, to a lesser extent, between right and left handers. Of interest, were significant Gender x Handedness and Gender x Handedness x Level (of performance) interactions seen especially in the older (postpubertal and adult) subjects. High performing, right handed males and left handed females performed better on visuospatial tasks while left handed males and right handed females performed better on verbosequential tasks.