词频、可预测性及合理性对目标词首次注视位置的影响

采用三项实验分别考察了目标词的词频、可预测性和合理性对读者眼动模式的影响。结果显示:(1)词频、可预测性和合理性对目标词语的凝视时间和总注视时间都有显著影响,但在首次注视时间上主效应不显著;(2)词频和可预测性不影响目标词的跳读率和再注视概率,而合理性对目标词的再注视概率产生显著的影响;(3)远注视点眼跳倾向于将首次注视位置着落于目标词的开端部位,而近注视点眼跳倾向于将首次注视着落于目标词的中央部位;词频、可预测性和合理性均不影响首次注视位置。     

回视引导机制:言语记忆与空间记忆之争

回视是阅读中的一种常见现象,占阅读眼跳的10～25%。关于回视引导机制的研究结论存在分歧,解释回视引导机制的理论间也存在争议。空间编码假设认为回视由空间记忆引导,言语重构假设则认为回视由言语记忆引导。本文分析比较了两种理论及相应研究存在的局限性,认为回视由空间记忆引导,言语记忆主要用于文本理解。未来研究应关注回视定位的准确性,词汇言语属性对回视定位的影响,跨文化研究和修正眼跳。     

词素位置概率在中文阅读中的作用：词汇判断和眼动研究

中文词切分的认知机制一直是心理语言学关注的焦点问题之一,研究发现中文读者可使用词素位置概率等语言学线索帮助词切分,而首、尾词素位置概率的重要程度以往研究观点并不一致。本研究通过词汇判断和眼动实验,考察中文读者对首、尾词素位置概率的利用情况。实验1a和1b采用词汇判断任务,考察在不同词频条件下词首与词尾词素位置概率对词汇识别的影响。在错误率和反应时指标上,高频词条件下词首与词尾词素位置概率效应不显著;低频词条件下词首词素位置概率效应显著,词尾词素位置概率效应不显著。实验2a和2b采用句子阅读任务,考察在自然阅读情境中被试对词素位置概率的运用。在凝视时间、回视路径时间和总注视时间指标上,低频词条件下词首词素位置概率效应显著,词尾词素位置概率效应不显著。高频词条件下词首与词尾词素位置概率效应均不显著。词汇判断和眼动证据共同表明,词素位置概率信息是中文读者重要的语言词切分线索,且与词尾词素位置概率相比,词首词素位置概率在词汇切分与识别过程中发挥的作用更大。同时,词素位置概率线索的运用会受到词频的影响,研究结果支持复合词加工的混合通达表征模型。     

阅读水平和阅读任务对英语词频效应的影响:来自非熟练汉-英双语者的眼动证据

利用眼动仪记录非熟练汉-英双语者阅读包含高频词或低频词的英语句子时的眼动轨迹,探讨不同阅读水平和不同阅读任务对词频效应的影响。采用2(阅读水平:高、低)×2(阅读任务:自然阅读、校对阅读)×2(目标词词频:高、低)混合实验设计。结果发现:(1)高水平组和低水平组都表现出显著的词频效应和阅读任务差异,即低水平组的词频效应更为明显,而高水平组的阅读任务差异更为明显;(2)不同阅读任务均表现出显著的词频效应,但校对阅读的词频效应更为明显。这表明,阅读水平和阅读任务均会影响英语阅读的词频效应,而高水平组被试在英语阅读中的认知灵活性更强。     

中文阅读中词汇加工的年老化:眼动证据

本研究探讨年老化影响中文阅读中词汇加工过程的特点,包含两项实验。实验一探讨老年与青年读者在词频效应上的差异,实验二探讨老年与青年读者在语境预测性效应上的差异。结果发现：（1）相对于青年读者,老年读者注视目标词汇的时间较长、再注视回视较多、跳读较少;（2）在首次注视时间、凝视时间和眼跳参数上,年龄组别与词频之间交互作用不显著,但对目标词汇的总注视时间上,年龄组别与词频之间交互作用显著;（3）在所有注视时间指标和回视概率上,均发现年龄组别与语境预测性影响之间交互作用显著。结论：中文老年读者阅读时的词汇加工效率低于青年人;中文阅读中眼跳策略与词汇加工的年老化模式有语言特殊性特点。     

年老化对中文阅读眼动控制的影响:来自词长和语境预测性效应的证据

本研究通过对比老年与青年人在阅读中词长、词频和语境预测性效应上的差异,探讨中文阅读中眼动控制的年老化问题。结果发现:(1)词长的年龄主效应显著,注视时间和首次注视位置指标上年龄与词长的交互作用显著;(2)在注视时间指标上发现了显著的词频和语境预测性效应,年龄与语境预测性之间交互作用显著。综合而言,中文阅读中老年读者的词长效应和语境预测性效应不同于青年读者,由此可见,视觉功能和词汇加工功能衰退都是中文阅读眼动控制年老化的诱发原因。     

藏语阅读中中央凹词频效应及对副中央凹预视效应的影响

在不同语言文字系统中, 对于眼动控制的本质及其发生机制, 尤其是阅读过程中注意资源的分配是序列分布还是平行分布的问题, 目前仍然存在着争论和分歧。藏语是拼音文字, 但它同时又具有汉语的特点, 独具语言特色。因此, 通过对藏语阅读过程中中央凹词频对副中央凹预视效应影响这一问题的探讨, 可以在一种已有研究未曾涉及的文字系统中进一步推动上述争议的解决。本研究采用眼动记录法, 设计了两个实验。实验1操纵了中央凹词频(高频、低频), 考察藏语阅读中中央凹词的词频效应及词频延迟效应, 结果发现, 藏语阅读中存在词频效应及词频延迟效应。实验2同时操纵中央凹词频和副中央凹预视词类型, 借助边界范式, 考察藏语阅读中副中央凹预视效应及中央凹词频对副中央凹预视效应的影响, 结果发现, 藏语阅读中存在副中央凹预视效应, 且与低频中央凹词相比, 高频中央凹词对副中央凹预视效应的促进作用更大。两个实验结果表明:(1)藏语阅读中存在显著的词频效应, 且表现在词汇加工的整个过程; (2)藏语阅读中存在显著的词频延迟效应, 并贯穿于词汇加工的整个过程; (3)藏语阅读中存在显著的副中央凹预视效应, 读者能通过副中央凹预视提取到语音和字形信息。藏语阅读中中央凹词频影响副中央凹预视效应的大小, 且词频只在词汇加工的早期对形的预视信息的提取产生影响, 即在形似预视条件下高频词的预视效应更大; (4)本研究发现的词频延迟效应及副中央凹预视效应, 支持了E-Z读者模型中有关副中央凹序列加工的观点。     

语境预测性对阅读中字词加工过程的影响：眼动证据

研究包含3项实验, 通过观察语境预测性与目标词汇的整词词频、词内汉字字频间交互作用, 以探讨阅读中语境预测性如何影响中文词汇加工问题。研究以双字词为例, 实验1操控目标词汇的语境预测性与整词词频, 结果发现, 语境预测性与整词词频交互作用不显著。实验2操控目标词汇的语境预测性与首字字频, 结果发现, 语境预测性与首字字频交互作用不显著。实验1和实验2的贝叶斯分析都倾向于支持交互作用不存在假设。实验3操控目标词汇的语境预测性与尾字字频, 结果发现, 语境预测性与尾字字频交互影响首次注视时间、凝视时间、总注视时间和再注视概率。由此可知, 语境预测性与整词词频、首字字频变量相对独立地影响词汇加工; 语境预测性直接影响词内汉字(尾字)的加工过程。     

阅读伴随词汇学习的词切分：首、尾词素位置概率的不同作用

本研究通过两个平行实验,探讨重复学习新词时首、尾词素位置概率信息作用于词切分的变化模式。采用阅读伴随词汇学习范式,将双字假词作为新词,实验1操纵首词素位置概率高低,保证尾词素相同;实验2操纵尾词素位置概率高低,保证首词素相同。采用眼动仪记录大学生阅读时的眼动轨迹。结果显示:(1)首、尾词素位置概率信息的词切分作用随新词在阅读中学习次数的增加而逐步变小,表现出“熟悉性效应”。(2)首词素位置概率信息的“熟悉性效应”表现在回视路径时间、总注视次数两个相对晚期的眼动指标,而尾词素位置概率信息的“熟悉性效应”则从凝视时间开始,到回视路径时间,再持续到总注视时间。结果表明首、尾词素的位置概率信息均作用于阅读伴随词汇学习的词切分,但首词素的作用时程更长,更稳定,支持了首词素在双字词加工中具有优势的观点。     

大学生英语语篇重复阅读的眼动研究

采用眼动追踪技术,考察重复阅读对母语为汉语的大学生阅读英语语篇的作用。研究采用2（目标词词频：高频、低频）×5（阅读遍数：1遍、2遍、3遍、4遍、5遍）的两因素被试内设计。结果发现：（1）随着阅读遍数的增加,读者的阅读理解正确率呈上升趋势,总阅读时间、注视次数、回视次数和平均注视时间显著降低,平均眼跳幅度显著增加;（2）阅读遍数与目标词词频的交互作用显著,表现为重复阅读对低频词识别的促进作用要显著大于对高频词识别的促进作用。研究表明重复阅读能够有效提高大学生对英语语篇的阅读效率。     

Long-range regressions to previously read words are guided by spatial and verbal memory

To examine the nature of the information that guides eye movements to previously read text during reading (regressions), we used a relatively novel technique to request a regression to a particular target word when the eyes reached a predefined location during sentence reading. A regression was to be directed to a close or a distant target when either the first or the second line of a complex two-line sentence was read. In addition, conditions were created that pitted effects of spatial and linguistic distance against each other. Initial regressions were more accurate when the target was spatially near, and effects of spatial distance dominated effects of verbal distance. Initial regressions rarely moved the eyes onto the target, however, and subsequent "corrective" regressions that homed in on the target were subject to general linguistic processing demands, being more accurate during first-line reading than during second-line reading. The results suggest that spatial and verbal memory guide regressions in reading. Initial regressions are primarily guided by fixation-centered spatial memory, and corrective regressions are primarily guided by linguistic knowledge.     

The role of verbal memory in regressions during reading

During reading, participants generally move their eyes rightward on the line. A number of eye movements, called regressions, are made leftward, to words that have already been fixated. In the present study, we investigated the role of verbal memory during regressions. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to read sentences for comprehension. After reading, they were asked to make a regression to a target word presented auditorily. The results revealed that their regressions were guided by memory, as they differed from those of a control group who did not read the sentences. The role of verbal memory during regressions was then investigated by combining the reading task with articulatory suppression (Exps. 2 and 3). The results showed that articulatory suppression affected the size and the accuracy of the initial regression but had a minimal effect on corrective saccades. This suggests that verbal memory plays an important role in determining the location of the initial saccade during regressions.     

The role of verbal memory in regressions during reading is modulated by the target word’s recency in memory

During reading, a number of eye movements are made backward, on words that have already been read. Recent evidence suggests that such eye movements, called regressions, are guided by memory. Several studies point to the role of spatial memory, but evidence for the role of verbal memory is more limited. In the present study, we examined the factors that modulate the role of verbal memory in regressions. Participants were required to make regressions on target words located in sentences displayed on one or two lines. Verbal interference was shown to affect regressions, but only when participants executed a regression on a word located in the first part of the sentence, irrespective of the number of lines on which the sentence was displayed. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that the effect of verbal interference on words located in the first part of the sentence disappeared when participants initiated the regression from the middle of the sentence. Our results suggest that verbal memory is recruited to guide regressions, but only for words read a longer time ago.     

Differentiating between verbal and spatial encoding using eye-movement recordings

Visual information processing is guided by an active mechanism generating saccadic eye movements to salient stimuli. Here we investigate the specific contribution of saccades to memory encoding of verbal and spatial properties in a serial recall task. In the first experiment, participants moved their eyes freely without specific instruction. We demonstrate the existence of qualitative differences in eye-movement strategies during verbal and spatial memory encoding. While verbal memory encoding was characterized by shifting the gaze to the to-be-encoded stimuli, saccadic activity was suppressed during spatial encoding. In the second experiment, participants were required to suppress saccades by fixating centrally during encoding or to make precise saccades onto the memory items. Active suppression of saccades had no effect on memory performance, but tracking the upcoming stimuli decreased memory performance dramatically in both tasks, indicating a resource bottleneck between display-controlled saccadic control and memory encoding. We conclude that optimized encoding strategies for verbal and spatial features are underlying memory performance in serial recall, but such strategies work on an involuntary level only and do not support memory encoding when they are explicitly required by the task.     

The effects of eye and limb movements on working memory

Three experiments examined the role of eye and limb movements in the maintenance of information in spatial working memory. In Experiment 1, reflexive saccades interfered with memory span for spatial locations but did not interfere with memory span for letters. In Experiment 2, three different types of eye movements (reflexive saccades, pro-saccades, and anti-saccades) interfered with working memory to the same extent. In all three cases, spatial working memory was much more affected than verbal working memory. The results of these two experiments suggest that eye movements interfere with spatial working memory primarily by disrupting processes localised in the visuospatial sketchpad. In Experiment 3, limb movements performed while maintaining fixation produced as much interference with spatial working memory as reflexive saccades. These results suggest that the interference produced by eye movements is not the result of their visual consequences. Rather, all spatially directed movements appear to have similar effects on visuospatial working memory.     

Attention and eye movements in reading: inhibition of return predicts the size of regressive saccades

A spatial cuing task was used to identify two types of readers, those with a relatively fast and those with a relatively slow buildup of inhibition of return (IOR). Backward-directed eye movements (regressions) during sentence reading were then examined as a function of the two IOR types. The results revealed that readers with fast IOR executed larger regressions than readers with slow IOR, as they directed the eyes away from the most recently attended area of text. Forward-directed eye movements (saccades), by contrast, were not a function of IOR type. Ease of sentence comprehension influenced the size of regressions, but this effect was also independent of IOR type. Multiple mechanisms of spatial attention, including IOR, bias eye movements toward upcoming words in the text during reading.     

Blinks as an index of cognitive activity during reading

Horizontal and vertical EOG recordings of eye movements were analyzed to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of blinks and the patterns of eye movements (saccades and fixation pauses) exhibited by six subjects during the reading of stories presented in two formats (on paper and on a VDT). The frequency and placement of blinks was not affected by the presentation condition. Blinks were determined to be non-randomly distributed during reading. Significantly more blinks (36%) occurred in conjunction with saccades than the proportion of time consumed by saccades (12%) would predict. Significantly more blinks (36%) occurred in the vicinity of line change saccades, which accounts for 15% of reading time, and with fixation pauses associated with regressions (42%), which accounts for 26% of reading time, than with fixation pauses during normal reading (22%), which accounts for 60% of reading time. The results of the study suggest that blink behavior during reading is under perceptual and cognitive control.     

Targeting regressions: Do readers pay attention to the left?

The perceptual span during normal reading extends approximately 14 to 15 characters to the right and three to four characters to the left of a current fixation. In the present study, we investigated whether the perceptual span extends farther than three to four characters to the left immediately before readers execute a regression. We used a display-change paradigm in which we masked words beyond the three-to-four-character range to the left of a fixation. We hypothesized that if reading behavior was affected by this manipulation before regressions but not before progressions, we would have evidence that the perceptual span extends farther left before leftward eye movements. We observed significantly shorter regressive saccades and longer fixation and gaze durations in the masked condition when a regression was executed. Forward saccades were entirely unaffected by the manipulations. We concluded that the perceptual span during reading changes, depending on the direction of a following saccade.     

阅读水平调节儿童阅读眼动注视模式的发展:基于9～11岁儿童的证据

按照3~5年级小学生的语文阅读水平,在各年级中分别选取年龄相同的高、中、低三组儿童作为被试,要求他们阅读适合本年级阅读水平的5篇短文,探讨同一年龄段内读者阅读水平的高低对阅读眼动注视模式的影响是否存在发展上的差异。通过记录其眼动轨迹,结果发现:9岁儿童的阅读眼动注视模式受读者本身阅读水平的影响最大,10岁次之,到11岁,随着儿童基本眼动行为的成熟,这种影响随之消失。表明读者阅读眼动注视模式的发展动力来源于语言操作技能和眼球运动协调性提高的交互作用。     

A review on eye movement studies in childhood and adolescent psychiatry

The neural substrates of eye movement measures are largely known. Therefore, measurement of eye movements in psychiatric disorders may provide insight into the underlying neuropathology of these disorders. Visually guided saccades, antisaccades, memory guided saccades, and smooth pursuit eye movements will be reviewed in various childhood psychiatric disorders. The four aims of this review are (1) to give a thorough overview of eye movement studies in a wide array of psychiatric disorders occurring during childhood and adolescence (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional deviant disorder and conduct disorder, autism spectrum disorders, reading disorder, childhood-onset schizophrenia, Tourette’s syndrome, obsessive compulsive disorder, and anxiety and depression), (2) to discuss the specificity and overlap of eye movement findings across disorders and paradigms, (3) to discuss the developmental aspects of eye movement abnormalities in childhood and adolescence psychiatric disorders, and (4) to present suggestions for future research. In order to make this review of interest to a broad audience, attention will be given to the clinical manifestation of the disorders and the theoretical background of the eye movement paradigms.