Effects of counsellor training: Further findings

The 1972/73 class of the University of Aston's Diploma in Counselling course were measured one year after training on their ability to respond empathically and on their ability to discriminate the quality of other counsellors' responses. The same group was also administered the Counsellor Attitude Scale six months and one year after their training. Differences from the administration at the end of the course were not significant on any measures, indicating that skills and attitudes persisted after training. Additionally, during the 1973/74 academic year, the Counsellor Attitude Scale was administered both at five different stages on the Aston course and also to other counsellor training courses. Results of the various CAS administrations are reported, and reasons are suggested for the different outcomes which seem – inter alia – to indicate the value of starting long courses with an intensive client-centred workshop.     

Job Importance as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction

Moderated regression analyses are used to assess the degree to which indirect indicators of job importance moderate the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction. The 1971 Quality of American Life Survey (N = 2,164) and the 1972-1973 Quality of Employment Survey (N = 1,496) provide two large nationwide probability sample data sets for these secondary analyses. It is hypothesized that the strength of the job satisfaction-life satisfaction relationship is positively related to job importance. Contrary to this hypothesis, respondents whose jobs were expected to be more important do not have substantially stronger job satisfaction-life satisfaction relationships than respondents whose jobs were expected to be less important. The zero-order job satisfaction–life satisfaction correlations in both samples are stronger than expected (r = .48 and r = .49). Discussion focuses on the conceptual implications of the failure to find substantial moderator effects. Locke's (1969) theory of the implicit role of importance in determining satisfaction is invoked to explain the obtained pattern of results.     

A comparison of the marriage-role expectations of college women enrolled in a functional marriage course in 1961, 1972, and 1978

The Dunn Marriage Role Expectation Inventory was used to compare the marriage-role expectations of female university students enrolled in an introductory marriage and family course in 1961 (N=72), 1972 (N=58), and 1978 (N=115). The 1978 group was significantly more egalitarian than the 1961 group in overall marriage-role expectations and on each of the seven subcategories of authority, homemaking, child care, personal characteristics, social participation, education, and employment and support. The 1972 group was also found to be significantly more egalitarian than the 1961 group in overall marriage-role expectations and on all subcategories except authority. The 1978 group was significantly more egalitarian than the 1972 group only on authority and homemaking, with no significant differences on overall marriage-role expectations or on the other five subscales. The significant move toward more egalitarian attitudes toward authority and homemaking is accentuated by the fact that only 6 years separate the 1972 and 1978 groups, while there is an 11-year difference between the 1961 and 1972 groups.The data were collected in February 1961, January 1972, and September 1978. Special acknowledgment and appreciation are expressed to Jessie Ringo (retired) for making the 1961 data available for this study and to William F. Kenkel, Department of Sociology, University of Kentucky, for his helpful comments.     

B型尿钠肽前体N末端对全身性感染患者预后评价价值

探讨B型尿钠肽前体N末端（NT—proBNP）在全身性感染患者预后评价方面的价值,及其与APACHEII评分在全身性感染患者的相关性。选取全身性感染患者32例,以28天随访结果,根据其转归分为存活组24例和死亡组8例。分别在确诊后Oh、72h采血行NT—proBNP检测,并采集数据进行APACHEII评分。结果显示死亡组NT—proBNP（Oh）[（5463．7±4152．3）ng／L]明显高于存活组[（839．4±1132．0）ng／L]（P=0．016）,72h后死亡组NT—proBNP[（5676．1±3937．4）ng／L]依然高于存活组[（843．5±866．3）ng／L]（P=0．017）。NT—proBNP（Oh）、NT—proBNP（72h）（P〈0．05）是病死率的独立影响因素。经过对数转换的NT—proBNP（Oh）与APACHEⅡ评分明显相关（r=0．73,P〈0．001）。由此可见,NT—proBNP与病死率及APACHEⅡ评分呈显著正相关关系,可以作为一种常规临床检测指标来判断全身性感染患者的预后。     

Book reviews

DIAMOND, S. J. The Social Behaviour of Animals. London: Baqtsford. 1970. Pp. 256. £2.50.

JARRARD, L. E. (Ed.). Cognitive Processes in Non-human Primates. New York: Academic Press. 1971. Pp. 188.

BROZEK, J. and SLOBIN, D. I. (Eds). Psychology in the USSER: An Historical Perspective. New York: International Arts and Sciences Press. 1972. Pp. x + 30.1. $ 15.00.

A. R. JENSEN. Genetics and Education. London: Methuen. 1972. Pp. Vii + 379. £ 3.50.

OATLEY, K. Brain Mechanisms and Mind. London: Thames and Husdson. 1972. Pp. 216. £2.25.

BOAKES, R. A. and HALLIDAY, M. S., (Eds). Inhibition and Learning. London: Academic Press 1972. Pp. 568. £7.25.

TOBACH, E., ARONSON, L. R. and SHAW, E. (Eds). The Biopsychology of Development. New York: Academic Press. 1971. Pp.xix + 593. dollar 22.50.

MOLTZ, H. (Ed.). The Ontogeny of Vertebrate Behavior. New York and London: Academic Press. 1971. Pp. 500. $ 22.50.

SOKOLOV, A. N. Inner Speech and Thought. London: Plenum Publishment Co. 1972. Pp. 283. £ 10.50

SHOUKSMITH, G. Intelligence, Creativity and Cognivity and Cognitive Style. LOndon: Batsford. 1970.Pp. 240. £ 2.30,

BOLTON, N. The psychology of Thinking. Lond Methuuen. 1972. Pp. 291. £3.20.

JOHNSON, D. M. Systematic Introduction to The Psychology of Thinking. New York: Harper and Row, 1972. Pp. 498. £ 5.10.

LLOYD, B. Preception and Cognition. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 1972. Pp. 190. £ 0.80.     

Validation of physical ability tests for high pressure cleaning occupations

This paper describes the development and validation of a physical performance test battery to select high pressure cleaning workers at Tennessee Eastman Company. The research uses a concurrent, criterion-related validation strategy to demonstrate the relationship between test performance and job performance. The study proceeded through four stages, with data collected in one stage used in subsequent stages. The two types of predictor measures included ability tests and work sample simulations. For some analyses, the work sample simulations were also used as criteria. Four samples of incumbents (N=63) were tested on all experimental measures. Using criterion groups of successful incumbents and unsuccessful former incumbents (N=33), all of the work simulation tests and the ability-referenced tests were significant predictors of successful versus unsuccessful job status. In addition, the ability tests predicted performance on the work sample simulations, particularly for those requiring strength and endurance. A battery of three ability tests resulted in R=.68 for job status and in R=.43, .73, .80, and .84, respectively, for each of the work sample simulations. Two of the three ability tests in the final test battery are likely to result in adverse impact against females. However, data collected on female maintenance technicians indicated women, as a group, would not be screened out categorically as a result of implementing the physical ability test battery.     

Book reviews

D. E. M. Gardner: Susan Isaacs: A First Biography. Methuen Educational Ltd., 1972. Price £1.50.

Marion Milner: On Not Being Able to Paint. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London, 1971. Price 90p

Paul Nordoff and Clive Robbins: Therapy in Music for Handicapped Children, with a foreword by Benjamin Britten. Victor Gollancz, London, 1971. Price £1.80.

The Mental Health Book Review Index: an Annual Bibliography of Books and Book Reviews in the Behavioural Sciences, Vol. 17, 1972, XXVI. Price $10.00. Published by the Council on Research in Bibliography, Inc., c/o Research Center for Mental Health, New York University, New York, N.Y. 10003. (Address orders to: Mental Health Book Review Index, c/o Paul Klapper Library, Queens College of the City University of New York, Flushing, New York 11367, U.S.A.)     

LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS OF ABILITY-JOB COMPLEXITY FIT AND JOB CHANGE

The study examines job mobility as a function of congruence between individuals' abilities and their job's complexity. The gravitational hypothesis (McCormick, DeNisi, & Staw, 1979; McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham, 1972), a keystone of this objective, posits that individuals will sort into jobs that are commensurate with their ability level. This study used various analytical techniques to examine the relationship between ability, person-job fit, and occupational mobility. First, the gravitational hypothesis was tested. Second, the direction of mismatch between ability and job complexity was hypothesized to predict direction of change in job complexity over time. Two national, longitudinal databases, the National Longitudinal Study of the Class of 1972 (NLS-72) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Labor Market Experience-Youth Cohort (NLSY), were used to test these relationships. Results were supportive in both the NLS-72 and the NLSY. Additional analyses examined the difference between measures of objective job complexity and subjective job complexity (Gerhart, 1988) for the gravitational process and the difference in employer- and employee-initiated job changes. These results have implications for employers, vocational counselors and job applicants. Suggestions for improving the ability-job complexity match are provided.     

The effect of duration of exposure on systematic desensitization and extinction.

An important variable which has only recently received attention (Proctor, 1968; Watts, 1971) is the influence of intra-item exposure time to aversive stimuli on systematic desensitization. Long single exposure to hierarchy items was more effective in reducing avoidance behavior than short exposure (Ross and Proctor, 1973). It is possible, therefore, for duration of exposure to be a confounding variable in previous desensitization research.In studies where exposure only conditions were ineffective (Davison, 1968; Lomont and Edwards, 1967), the visualization time was less than 15 sec. Successful utilization of extinction-like procedures employed longer exposure times (Vodde and Gilner, 1971 for 20–30 sec; Crowder and Thornton, 1970 for 30 sec; Sue, 1972 for 20 sec; Nawas, Welsch and Fishman, 1970 for 60 sec: Wolpin and Raines, 1966 for up to 10 min).Intra-item exposure time may also account for the discrepant findings on the influence of cognitive variables on the efficacy of systematic desensitization. In the studies where expectations or therapeutic instructions were important (Leitenberg et al., 1969; Valins and Ray, 1967), subjects were exposed to aversive stimuli for 10–15 sec. Where positive expectations were unimportant, the exposure time was longer (McGlynn and Mapp, 1970 for 20–30 sec; McGlynn, Gaynor and Puhr, 1972 for 20–30 sec; McGlynn, Reynolds and Linder, 1971 for 20–40 sec; Lomont and Brock, 1971 for 60 sec). Therapeutic expectations, relaxation, and other variables may assume importance during periods of short exposure.So far, there has been no adequate investigation of intra-item exposure time on both extinction and desensitization. The procedures employed by Watts (1971) and Proctor (1968) do not allow such a comparison to be made. The purpose of the present study is to examine the influence of short (5 sec) and lengthy (30 sec) exposure to aversive stimuli on extinction and desensitization conditions.In line with the results of Davison (1968) and Lomont and Edwards (1967), it was predicted that exposure of short duration would be less effective than exposure of longer duration under the extinction condition (Vodde and Gilner, 1971 ; Crowder and Thronton, 1970; Nawas et al., 1970; Wolpin and Raines, 1966). No specific predictions were made on the desensitization groups. There were four experimental groups: (1) two exposure only groups (visualization for either 5 sec or 30 sec), and (2) two systematic desensitization groups (visualization for 5 sec or 30 sec). A no-treatment control group was also employed.     

Individual differences in processing styles: validity of the Rational-Experiential Inventory

In Study 1 (N= 203) the factor structure of a Swedish translation of Pacini and Epstein's Rational-Experiential Inventory (REI-40) was investigated using confirmatory factor analysis. The hypothesized model with rationality and experientiality as orthogonal factors had satisfactory fit to the data, significantly better than alternative models (with two correlated factors or a single factor). Inclusion of "ability" and "favorability" subscales for rationality and experientiality increased fit further. It was concluded that the structural validity of the REI is adequate. In Study 2 (N= 72) the REI-factors were shown to have theoretically meaningful correlations to other personality traits, indicating convergent and discriminant validity. Finally, scores on the rationality scale were negatively related to risky choice framing effects in Kahneman and Tversky's Asian disease task, indicating concurrent validity. On the basis of these findings it was concluded that the test has satisfactory psychometric properties.     

Effect of neutral conditioning on racial attitudes of children.

The purpose of this experiment was to test the effectiveness of classical conditioning procedures in reducing negative evaluative responses, i.e., attitudes, toward pictures of Afro-American people. Ss were 73 Euro-American kindergarten children who received either 0, 1, 4, or 8 conditioning sessions of 36 pairings of the color black with neutral words. Two racial attitude scales were employed to measure amount of change in Ss' racial attitudes after exposure to the conditiong procedures. Parish's (1972) Revised PRAM II did not detect any change, but Williams' (1971) PRAM II demonstrated a significant reduction in anti-Afro-American attitudes for those Ss who received 8 conditioning sessions.     

Object individuation and labelling in 6-month-old infants

The ability to determine how many objects are involved in physical events is fundamental for reasoning about the world that surrounds us. Previous studies suggest that infants can fail to individuate objects in ambiguous occlusion events until their first birthday and that learning words for the objects may play a crucial role in the development of this ability. The present eye-tracking study tested whether the classical object individuation experiments underestimate young infants’ ability to individuate objects and the role word learning plays in this process. Three groups of 6-month-old infants (N = 72) saw two opaque boxes side by side on the eye-tracker screen so that the content of the boxes was not visible. During a familiarization phase, two visually identical objects emerged sequentially from one box and two visually different objects from the other box. For one group of infants the familiarization was silent (Visual Only condition). For a second group of infants the objects were accompanied with nonsense words so that objects’ shape and linguistic labels indicated the same number of objects in the two boxes (Visual & Language condition). For the third group of infants, objects’ shape and linguistic labels were in conflict (Visual vs. Language condition). Following the familiarization, it was revealed that both boxes contained the same number of objects (e.g. one or two). In the Visual Only condition, infants looked longer to the box with incorrect number of objects at test, showing that they could individuate objects using visual cues alone. In the Visual & Language condition infants showed the same looking pattern. However, in the Visual vs Language condition infants looked longer to the box with incorrect number of objects according to linguistic labels. The results show that infants can individuate objects in a complex object individuation paradigm considerably earlier than previously thought and that linguistic cues enforce their own preference in object individuation. The results are consistent with the idea that when language and visual information are in conflict, language can exert an influence on how young infants reason about the visual world.     

Unilateral hemispheric activation does not affect free-viewing perceptual asymmetries

Strong leftward perceptual biases have been reported for the selection of the darker of two left/right mirror-reversed luminance gradients under free-viewing conditions. This study investigated the effect of unilateral hemispheric activation on this leftward bias in two groups of dextrals (N = 52 and N = 24). In Experiment 1, activation was manipulated by asking participants to tap with their left or right fingers along their midline. In Experiment 2, participants clenched their left or right hands in their respective hemispaces. Participants selected the stimulus that was darker on the left-hand side 73% of the time. Despite manipulations of activation strength and hemispace, activation had no effect on the asymmetry. If activation was important, the leftward bias should have been enhanced when the left hand/right hemisphere was active and reduced (or reversed) when the right hand/left hemisphere was active. The contribution of left-to-right scanning biases to free-viewing perceptual asymmetries is discussed as an alternative.     

Self‐enhancement,crash‐risk optimism and the impact of safety advertisements on young drivers

In Study 1, young drivers (aged between 16 and 29 years, N=314) rated their driving attributes relative to their peers. They also rated their likelihood of being involved in a crash relative to their peers (crash‐risk optimism), their crash history, stereotype of the young driver, and concern over another health issue. A self‐enhancement bias was found for all items in which self/other comparisons were made. These items formed two major factors, perceived relative driving ability and perceived relative driving caution. These factors and perceived luck relative to peers in avoiding crashes significantly predicted crash‐risk optimism. In Study 2, an experimental group of young drivers (N=173) watched safety advertisements that showed drinking and dangerous driving resulting in a crash, and a control group (N=193) watched advertisements showing people choosing not to drive after drinking. Each group then completed the self/other comparisons used in Study 1. The same factors were found, but only driving caution significantly predicted crash‐risk optimism. The experimental group showed more self‐enhancement on driving ability than the control group. In both studies, men showed substantially more self‐enhancement than women about their driving ability. Implications for safety interventions are discussed.     

Book reviews

ROBINSON, J. O. The psychology of Visual Illusion. London: Hutchinson University Library. 1972. Pp. 285. £ 3.00.

CARROLL, JOHN B. and FREEDLE, Roy O. (Eds). Language Comprehension and the Acquisition of Knowledge. New York: John Wiley. 1972.

PEARSON, R. The Avian Brain. London: Academic Press. 1972. Pp 624. £ 10.00.

KORNBLUM, S. (Ed.). Attention and Perfomance IV. New York and London: Academic Press. 1973. Pp. xxx+771. $ 18.50.

WASON, P. C. and JOHNSON-LAIRD, P. N. Psychology of Reasoming: Reasosming: Structure and Content. London: B. T. Batsford Limited. 1972. Pp 26.4. £ 3.50.

GILBERT, R. M. and MILLENSON, J. R. (Eds). Reinforcement: Behavioural Analysis. New York: Academic Press. 1972. Pp. xiii+288. £ 6.35.

STRONGMAN, K. T. The Psychology of Emotion. London: Wiley. 1973. Pp. 191. £ 3.50.

MYERS, R. D. (Ed.). Methods in psychobiology. Vol. 2. London and New York: Academic Press. 1972. Pp. xii+398. £ 6.50.

NILSSON, N. J. Problem-Solving Methods in Artificial Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1971. Pp. 255. POund 5.40.

SHEEHAN, P. W. (Ed.). The function and Nature of Imagery. New York: Acadmic Press. 1972. Pp. $ 22.50.

CLARKE, E. and DEWHURST, K. An Illustrated of Brain Furction. Oxford: Sandford Publication. 1972. Pp. 154. £ 5.50.

SCHACHTER, S. Emotion, Obesity and Crime. New York: Academic Press. 1971. Pp. 195. £ 3.50.

MCGUIGAN, F. J. and LUMSDEN, D.B. (Eds). Contemporary Appraches to Conditioning and Learning. Washingotn, D. C.: v. H. Winston and Sons. 1973. Pp. xii+231. £ 6.50.

BECK, J. Surface Colour Perception. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. 1972.Pp. £ 11.50.     

An operant treatment procedure for alcoholics

For many years total abstinence was regarded as the appropriate criterion for the successful treatment of alcoholism. It is suggested that given societal norms for social consumption of alcohol, plus the social reinforcers which maintain beverage alcohol ingestion, social drinking may serve as a realistic treatment goal. The efficacy of a social drinking criterion was clearly demonstrated by Bigelow et al. (1972). Chronic alcoholic in-patients were placed in a choice situation in which they earned the opportunity to participate in an ‘enriched’ environment contingent upon either moderate drinking or abstinence. Subjects overwhelmingly chose the moderate drinking alternative. Results also suggested that moderate drinking is more reinforcing than abstinence for alcoholics. Further support for the moderate drinking concept was rendered by Mills, Sobel and Schaeffer (1971) in a study which made electric shock contingent on gulping drinks, ordering straight alcoholic drinks and ordering and consuming more than three drinks. Time-out (Cohen et al., 1971), positive reinforcement (Cohen et al., 1971) and social contracting procedures (Miller, 1972) have been effectively employed to reduce drinking behavior from maladaptive to adaptive frequencies.

The present study attempts to extend treatment with a controlled drinking outcome to out-patient alcoholics     

Children's low affective perspective-taking ability is associated with low self-initiated pro-sociality

Children's affective perspective-taking (APT) may provide a basis for efficient social interaction. The APT abilities of 83 children from 46 same-sex sibling pairs (ages 36 to 72 months, M = 52.8; SD = 12.6) were assessed through their reactions to affectively loaded story situations, and children whose APT ability (but not general cognitive abilities) was low relative to other children of their age were designated as Low-APT children. These children were not less pro-social when specific social cues or requests for pro-social behavior were given by experimenters. However, low APT may hinder children's ability to infer the need for pro-social action from relatively subtle social cues. Although 46.9% of nonlow APT children behaved pro-socially in at least two of three opportunities they were given to perform a self-initiated pro-social behavior, none of the children who were low on APT did.     

Do complex models increase prediction of complex behaviours? Predicting driving ability in people with brain disorders

Prediction of complex behavioural tasks via relatively simple modelling techniques, such as logistic regression and discriminant analysis, often has limited success. We hypothesized that to more accurately model complex behaviour, more complex models, such as kernel-based methods, would be needed. To test this hypothesis, we assessed the value of six modelling approaches for predicting driving ability based on performance on computerized sensory-motor and cognitive tests (SMCTests?) in 501 people with brain disorders. The models included three models previously used to predict driving ability (discriminant analysis, DA; binary logistic regression, BLR; and nonlinear causal resource analysis, NCRA) and three kernel methods (support vector machine, SVM; product kernel density, PK; and kernel product density, KP). At the classification level, two kernel methods were substantially more accurate at classifying on-road pass or fail (SVM 99.6%, PK 99.8%) than the other models (DA 76%, BLR 78%, NCRA 74%, KP 81%). However, accuracy decreased substantially for all of the kernel models when cross-validation techniques were used to estimate prediction of on-road pass or fail in an independent referral group (SVM 73-76%, PK 72-73%, KP 71-72%) but decreased only slightly for DA (74-75%) and BLR (75-76%). Cross-validation of NCRA was not possible. In conclusion, while kernel-based models are successful at modelling complex data at a classification level, this is likely to be due to overfitting of the data, which does not lead to an improvement in accuracy in independent data over and above the accuracy of other less complex modelling techniques.     

Do complex models increase prediction of complex behaviours? Predicting driving ability in people with brain disorders

Prediction of complex behavioural tasks via relatively simple modelling techniques, such as logistic regression and discriminant analysis, often has limited success. We hypothesized that to more accurately model complex behaviour, more complex models, such as kernel-based methods, would be needed. To test this hypothesis, we assessed the value of six modelling approaches for predicting driving ability based on performance on computerized sensory–motor and cognitive tests (SMCTests?) in 501 people with brain disorders. The models included three models previously used to predict driving ability (discriminant analysis, DA; binary logistic regression, BLR; and nonlinear causal resource analysis, NCRA) and three kernel methods (support vector machine, SVM; product kernel density, PK; and kernel product density, KP). At the classification level, two kernel methods were substantially more accurate at classifying on-road pass or fail (SVM 99.6%, PK 99.8%) than the other models (DA 76%, BLR 78%, NCRA 74%, KP 81%). However, accuracy decreased substantially for all of the kernel models when cross-validation techniques were used to estimate prediction of on-road pass or fail in an independent referral group (SVM 73–76%, PK 72–73%, KP 71–72%) but decreased only slightly for DA (74–75%) and BLR (75–76%). Cross-validation of NCRA was not possible. In conclusion, while kernel-based models are successful at modelling complex data at a classification level, this is likely to be due to overfitting of the data, which does not lead to an improvement in accuracy in independent data over and above the accuracy of other less complex modelling techniques.     

Book reviews

SANDERS, A. F. (Ed.). Attention and Performance III. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company. 1970. Pp. viii + 442. (Price not known.)

CORCORAN, D. W. J. Pattern Recognition. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd. 1971. Pp. 223. £0.50.

SCHRIER, A. M. and STOLLNITZ, F. (Eds.) Behaviour of Nonhuman Primates Vol. III. New York: Academic Press Inc. 1971. £4.45.

KINTSCH, W. Learning, Memory, and Conceptual Processes. New York: Wiley and Sons. 1970. Pp. 498. £4.40.

MORTON, J. (Ed.) Biological and Social Factors in Psycholinguistics. London: Logos Press. 1971. Pp. 215. £3.50.

RITCHIE RUSSELL, W. The Traumatic Amnesius. London: Oxford University Press. Pp. 84. £2.00.

MILLER, N. E. Selected Papers. Chicago: Aldine Publishing. 1971. Pp. 874. £15.00.

SUTHERLAND, N. S. AND MACKINTOSH, N. J. Mechanisms of Animal Discrimination Learning. New York: Academic Press. 1971. Pp. 559. $18.50.

FURCHTGOTT, E. (Ed.). Pharmacological and Biophysical Agents and Behavior. New York: Academic Press. 1971. Pp. xii+402. $14.50.

EYSENCK, H. J., ARNOLD, W. AND MEILI,R. (Eds). Encyclopedia of Psychology. Volume I. London: Search Press. 1972. Pp. 396. £8.00.