Coping with war captivity: the role of attachment style

The current study examines the implication of attachment style in both immediate coping and long-term adjustment of prisoners of war (POWs). 164-ex-POWs and 184 matched controls filled out a battery of questionnaires, 18 years after the war. They were questioned about their subjective experience of captivity, current mental health status, and characteristic attachment style. Secure individuals, who reported lower levels of suffering, less helplessness and more active coping during captivity, exhibited better long-term adjustment. Avoidant ex-POWs, who reported helplessness and hostility, and ambivalent individuals, who felt abandoned and vulnerable, reported long-term maladjustment. The role of attachment style as a stress-moderating resource is discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The four dimensions of sensation seeking: a confirmatory factor analysis

The factor structure of the Sensation Seeking Scale, Form V was obtained for a large Canadian sample consisting of 299 males and 439 females. Constrained maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that both male and female factors correspond to the four-dimensional model of sensation seeking postulated by Zuckerman (1979). These findings are in close agreement with previous reports of the factor structure and psychometric indices obtained with other cultural and national groups. However, the four factors accounted for only 21% of the variation for males and 20% for females. This finding is consistent with the modest KR-20 values obtained for the test subscales. Items displaying undesirable psychometric characteristics common to the present study and the extant literature are identified.     

Early adolescent sexual debut: The mediating role of working memory ability, sensation seeking, and impulsivity

Although deficits in working memory ability have been implicated in suboptimal decision making and risk taking among adolescents, its influence on early sexual initiation has so far not been examined. Analyzing 2 waves of panel data from a community sample of adolescents (N = 347; Mean age[baseline] = 13.4 years), assessed 1 year apart, the present study tested the hypothesis that weak working memory ability predicts early sexual initiation and explored whether this relationship is mediated by sensation seeking and 2 forms of impulsivity, namely acting-without-thinking and temporal discounting. The 2 forms of impulsivity were expected to be positively associated with early sexual initiation, whereas sensation seeking was hypothesized to be unrelated or to have a protective influence, due to its positive association with working memory. Results obtained from structural equation modeling procedures supported these predictions and in addition showed that the effects of 3 prominent risk factors (Black racial identity, low socioeconomic background, and early pubertal maturation) on early sexual initiation were entirely mediated by working memory and impulsivity. The findings are discussed in regard to their implications for preventing early sexual onset among adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

The link between sensation seeking and aggression: a meta-analytic review

Substantial empirical evidence supports low resting heart rate (HR) as the best replicated psychophysiological correlate of aggression [Ortiz and Raine, 2004]; however, researchers continue to debate the explanatory mechanisms of the phenomenon. Sensation seeking has been proposed as a possible outcome of low resting HR that may lead to aggressive tendencies but findings have been inconsistent in terms of showing a relationship between sensation seeking and aggression. A meta-analysis was conducted on 43 independent effect sizes, from studies with a total of 32,217 participants, to test the hypothesis that sensation seeking would be positively related to aggression across studies. A significant overall effect size was found (d = .1935, P<.001), supporting the hypothesis. Moderator analyses revealed that the relationship differed based on participant and methodological characteristics, such as participant age and the nature of the aggression measurement; however, these conclusions are limited by the uneven number of studies in many of the moderator classes. Overall, the findings provide support for higher levels of aggression in high sensation seekers and have theoretical implications for arousal theory. Further research on the links between arousal, sensation seeking and aggression can inform clinicians about potential interventions.     

Relation of transliminality and sensation seeking

The Revised Transliminality Scale and Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (Form V) were administered to 83 psychology undergraduates. Weak positive correlations suggested that participants scoring high on the Transliminality Scale tended to be more experience seeking and, overall, more inclined to score sensation seeking.     

Demographic influences in sensation seeking and expressions of sensation seeking in religion, smoking and driving habits

A large sample of readers of a popular psychology magazine took the Sensation Seeking Scale (form V) and filled out a personal data form. The information in the data form was used to examine the relationship between SSS scores and demographic and experience variables. Sex and age showed strong relationships with the SSS. Education and occupation of the subjects and their parents showed lesser relationships with the SSS and primarily in females. Non-believers in conventional religion and infrequent church-goers had higher SSS scores than those who identify with such religions and attend church regularly. Smokers had higher scores than non-smokers although the relationship with amount of smoking was not a linear one. Driving habits of speeding related strongly to sensation seeking in a linear fashion.     

The perception of sensation seeking in familiar and unfamiliar others

In Study I, 20 heterosexual couples filled out the Sensation Seeking Scale (Form V) for themselves and as they thought their partner would. The mean difference between the predicted score for one's partner and the partner's actual scale was -2.40 for the males and -1.10 for the females; neither of which significantly differed from 0. The predicted scores and actual scores were highly correlated (r = 0.58 for males and r = 0.66 for females). The results support the idea that people are accurate in their estimations of sensation seeking in familiar others.In study II, the ability to evaluate sensation seeking in unfamiliar others was investigated. Segments from four commercial movies involving six different characters were shown to subjects. After viewing one of these segments subjects filled out a sensation seeking scale as they thought the movie character would. A high level of inter-observer agreement was observed for these ratings. Moreover, the ratings for each of the six characters were congruent with the experimenters' prior judgements of each character's level of sensation seeking. These data support the hypothesis that rapid and accurate judgements of the sensation seeking trait in unfamiliar others are possible.     

Explorations into the biochemistry of sensation seeking

This investigation sought to determine to what extent, if any, the personality trait of sensation seeking is related to blood plasma levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO) and dopamine beta hydroxylase (DBH). The experimental group consisted to 19 ski instructors/petrolmen (8 females and 11 males) aged 18–19 yr. The control group was made up of 21 New Mexico Highlands University (NMHU) students (11 females and 10 males) also aged 18–39 yr. The experiment was divided into morning and afternoon sessions. During the morning session the Ss completed the Sensation Seeking Form V, the Sensation of blood by venipuncture. A second blood sample was taken during the afternnon session. The skier group scored significantly higher on those personality measures designed to identify the sensation seeking personality, and the skiers also had significantly higher DBH levels than the nonskiers [F(1, 36)=16.62, P=0.0002]. A possible explanation for the high DBH levels among skiers is that at the time of the blood sampling, the skiers were in a more stressful situation and they had also engaged in vigorous physical exercise.     

The sensation seeking scale V (SSS-V): Still reliable and valid

This is a response to Gray and Wilson’s (2007) article: “A detailed analysis of the reliability and validity of the sensation seeking scale in a UK sample”. Gray and Wilson analysed the items in the four subscales of the SSS-V, using a Likert type response format and deconstructing the forced choice format of the original. However they used some anachronistic items from the old 1978 form rather than the revisions of these items in the newer form. But even excluding the 19 items from the 80 item test not meeting their internal reliability criterion did not improve the reliabilities of the old scales in their Likert format. Validity of the SSS is not really addressed despite the title of the article.     

Coping with racial discrimination: The role of substance use

Three studies tested the hypothesis that the relation between perceived racial discrimination and substance use reported in previous research is moderated by use of substances as a coping mechanism. Studies 1 and 2 were experimental studies of African American adolescents' and young adults' reactions to a discrimination experience. Results revealed that those who endorsed substance use-as-coping reported more willingness to use substances after experiencing discrimination. Study 3 was a prospective study of the relation between perceived discrimination and substance use over an 8-year period in African American adolescents. Results demonstrated that discrimination is associated with increases in substance use, but only among adolescents who endorse substance use-as-coping. Together, these three studies provide evidence that experiencing discrimination has both short- and long-term detrimental effects on African Americans' substance use, but significantly more so for those who adopt a pattern of using substances as a coping mechanism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Social norms for the desirability of sensation seeking

The level of sensation seeking most socially desirable was determined by informing undergraduate students that they were to respond to Zuckerman's (1979) Sensation Seeking Scale (Form V) twice, once under the usual instructions and once under instructions to create the best possible image for someone they found attractive. Scores under the best image instructions (M = 23.85, SD = 6.52) were higher than scores under the usual instructions (M = 18.00, SD = 5.40). The scores produced under the best image instructions were independent of scores produced under the usual instructions. These data are interpreted as evidence of norms for the social desirability of sensation seeking.Scores from present study were compared to baseline data for this population. Under the usual instructions, males scored lower than baseline, a difference not observed for females. Under the best image instructions, females scored higher than baseline, a difference not observed for males. This evidence regarding the susceptibility of the scale scores to instructional manipulations was discussed.     

A genetic and environmental analysis of sensation seeking

The genetic and environmental contributions to the trait of sensation seeking were analyzed using the responses of 422 pairs of twins to the Sensation Seeking Scale (Form IV). The biometrical method of Jinks and Fulker was applied to the data. The data fit the model indicating the likelihood of a predominantly additive gene action controlling the general trait. The heritability figure of 58% (69% of the reliable variance) was quite high for a personality trait. Data from other studies suggest that the heritability of the personality trait rests upon specific inherited biological traits, such as the biochemicals of the brain and gonadal hormones which affect arousability of the central nervous system and relevant traits, such as mood, impulsivity, risk taking, and sociability.     

On the distinction between violations and errors: sensation seeking associations

In this study about 700 young adult Swedish drivers aged 18–27 yr responded to a questionnaire on sensation seeking, the tendency to engage in risky behaviours, four types of aberrant driving behaviour (violations, mistakes, inattention and inexperience errors), traffic offences and accident involvement. These results suggest, not unreasonably, a differential relationship between different aspects of sensation seeking and aberrant driving behaviour. Whereas sensation seeking explained a large part of the variation in the violations factor, it accounted for very little of the variance in the other aberrant driving behaviour factors. This finding corresponds reasonably well with a hypothesis calling for a distinction between violations and errors. Still after controlling for the effect of exposure the self-reported accidents was associated with self-reported violations and driving mistakes. Self-reported traffic offences was associated with violations. Consequently, the violations and mistakes factors proved to be stable predictors of offences and accidents. The hierarchical approach taken in this study also shows how the construct of sensation seeking may be associated with aberrant driving behaviour.     

Correlations of extraversion,impulsivity and sociability with sensation seeking and MBTI-introversion

Three samples of undergraduates completed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS), Myers-Briggs Type Indicator-Introversion scale (MBTI-I), and, in one sample, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). As predicted, the correlation of EPI-Soc with MBTI-I was significantly and consistently larger than that for EPI-Imp; however, the tendency for EPI-Imp to have a larger correlation than EPI-Soc with SSS was not significant. Impulsivity and Sociability exhibited similar correlations with EPI-E, but Sociability had a significantly higher correlation with EPQ-E than did Impulsivity. Results demonstrate both the differential utility of Impulsivity and Sociability and the evolving nature of the EPI and EPQ measures of Extraversion.     

Extraversion, sensation seeking and electrodermal response: Probing a paradox

Extraversion and psychoticism are thought to relate inversely to electrodermal response amplitude. Paradoxically, sensation-seeking scales, which correlate positively with extraversion and psychoticism, have shown a positive relation to electrodermal response amplitude. In the present inquiry, inverse relationships were obeserved for extraversion and psychoticism with the electrodermal response to visual stimuli. Sensation seeking was also negatively related to the magnitude of the initial electrodermal response to pictures. A lowered response to words for low sensation seekers was observed that appeared to be influenced by skin conductance level.     

The sexual sensation seeking scale: reliability and validity within a heterosexual college student sample

The Sexual Sensation Seeking Scale (SSSS; Kalichman & Rompa, 1995) is a measure of the propensity to seek out novel or risky sexual stimulation. This measure has been consistently related to HIV-risk behavior in several different samples of gay men and with behavioral correlates of sexual permissiveness in college students. Five hundred twenty-eight college students completed the SSSS and several other sexuality and personality measures. The results reveal significant gender differences on the SSSS and similar (although stronger among women) patterns of significant correlations with sexually permissive characteristics and behaviors. Furthermore, SSSS scores were more highly correlated with sexual measures, whereas a more general measure of sensation seeking was more highly correlated with general personality measures. We discuss implications for use of the SSSS by sexuality educators and sex therapists.     

Accounting for sensation seeking in route choice behavior with travel time information

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that latent variables, with the focus on sensation seeking concepts, incorporated in new technique of route choice modeling, improve our analyzing of route choice behavior with pre-trip travel time information. The application of a hybrid discrete choice model framework integrates a latent variable model and a route choice model by combining their measurement and structural equations. The model is estimated based on data from a laboratory experiment and a field study of a simple network. The results show that certain sensation seeking domains (e.g., thrill and adventure seeking) alongside traditional variables (e.g., travel time information) enrich our understanding and provide more insight into route choice behavior. Furthermore, observed personal variables, such as gender and marital status, may serve as causal indicators to sensation seeking variables.     

Impulsivity,sensation seeking and reproductive behaviour: A life history perspective

Impulsivity has often been invoked as a proximate driver of different life-history strategies. However, conceptualisations of “impulsivity” are inconsistent and ambiguities exist regarding which facets of impulsivity are actually involved in the canalisation of reproductive strategies. Two variables commonly used to represent impulsivity were examined in relation to reproductive behaviour. Results demonstrated that sensation seeking was significantly related to strategy-based behaviour, but impulsivity (defined as a failure to deliberate) was only weakly correlated. The effect of impulsivity disappeared when sensation seeking was controlled. Sex differences emerged for sensation seeking but not impulsivity. We conclude that “impulsivity” is not a unitary trait and that clearer distinctions should be made between facets of this construct.     

A sensation seeking scale for children: Further refinement and psychometric development

A revision of the Sensation Seeking Scale for Children (SSSC) was standardized and validated on a community sample of 660 elementary- and middle-school children and 168 clinic-referred male children. Factor analysis of the combined samples yielded three unique factors, entitled Thrill and Adventure Seeking, Drug and Alcohol Attitudes, and Social Disinhibition. Psychometric indices of reliability and validity were acceptable, but test-retest reliability was only moderate. Differences in SSSC scores according to sex, ethnic group, age, and intellectual status were similar to those found previously with the adult Sensation Seeking Scales. Consistent with documented relations between adult antisocial personality and sensation seeking, the SSSC distinguished boys with conduct disorder (CD) from clinic controls, but the SSSC scores of boys with CD did not differ from those of the community sample boys. Discussion includes suggestions as to the continued study of the assessment of sensation seeking in children.This research was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant 1-R01-MH42529-04 and is based on the doctoral research of the first author.