Indian muftis and the non‐Muslims

Muslims like to emphasize that Islam represents primarily a way of life and not a system of belief with elaborate doctrines. This statement is justified by the discussions of Indian jurisconsults about the attitudes to be taken towards non‐Muslims. It is true that they occasionally engage in a polemic concerning theological issues, but the main concern is directed towards practical problems the ordinary believer is faced with in his relations with non‐Muslims. Consequently, most fatwas in this context deal with day‐to‐day worries. The trouble caused by Hindus is the allurement of their exuberant festivals and imaginative rituals, whereas questions raised in regard to the British stem from uneasy feelings roused by the strangeness of European culture and its fashions.     

When Muslims marry non‐Muslims: marriage as incorporation in a cape Muslim community1

This article, based on anthropological fieldwork in a township community in Cape Town, South Africa, in 2000, analyses genealogical data on the frequency of inter‐religious marriages in a coloured Cape Muslim community, and presents two Muslim marital narratives in order to illustrate what the limits of tolerance for atypical marital situations with regard to normative Islamic precepts may be in this specific Muslim community. I argue that the high frequency of inter‐religious marriages, as well as the high frequency of inter‐religious marriages involving Muslim‐born females, can only be explained by reference to a field characterised by socio‐religious fluidity, and by reinstating a notion of social agency of Muslim females in the organisation of their own marriages. I describe Cape Muslim identities as hybrid, and Islam as non‐determinative in the making of these identities.     

Yemeni debates on the status of non‐Muslims in Islamic law

This essay examines Yemeni legal debates, in the period between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries, regarding the status of and relations with non‐Muslims inside and outside the Islamic state. The legal works considered in this paper are written by Zaydi scholars, but they are informed by all other Muslim legal traditions. Studies of the Islamic law of nations and of the dhimma system have traditionally fluctuated between either wholesale condemnation or unqualified apologetic defence. And yet, as the works examined in this essay illustrate, the Islamic legal position on each of the controversial aspects of the laws of non‐Muslims is diverse, and it does not lend itself to essentialist classifications. Moreover, this diversity demonstrates the internal flexibility of the law and its inherent potential for reforming itself.     

Namik Kemal's constitutional Ottomanism and non‐Muslims

The nineteenth century was a turning point in Muslim conceptualization of non‐Muslims in Islamic societies. This paper analyzes Namik Kemal's (1840–88) conceptualization of the role of non‐Muslims in Ottoman society. I argue that it stemmed from his reformist discourse, in particular, from his criticism of the ideology of absolutist Ottomanism, and gave rise to a variety of discursive tensions. Specifically, tension emerged in his attempt to reconcile the issue of egalitarianism with that of Islamic political and cultural unity. I link Kemal's ideas on the means and objectives of reforms, in particular, his thoughts on constitutional Ottomanism, to his views on the political role of non‐Muslims in the Ottoman state. The results should hopefully elucidate our understanding of the organizing principles of inclusion and exclusion of non‐Muslims in the Ottoman Empire.     

Inter‐cultural learning and inter‐religious dialogue: Problems in the way of understanding between Muslims and Christians

There are fundamental difficulties which make dialogue and social communication between Muslims and Christians difficult, and at times impossible. There are already substantial Muslim minorities in most Western countries, and it is thus of enormous importance to find ways of coping with these difficulties. A well‐functioning dialogue between Muslims and the indigenous inhabitants of these societies is essential for the success of a ‘Multi‐cultural Society’. Kandil puts forward his views in ten short propositions, which imply that the difficulties in communication between these two groups are not primarily religious in character; instead, they have cultural and political roots. These he tries to identify.     

Muslim anti‐secularist discourse in the context of Muslim‐Christian relations

This article observes and critically evaluates some of the main components of Muslim anti‐secularist discourse: the assumption that there is ‘no separation between religion and politics’, that the Shari^c a represents the antithesis of secularism, that secularism is a specifically Western or Christian phenomenon, and that secularism is causally related to a crisis of values in contemporary Western civilization. After observing some recent attempts to justify secularism on Islamic grounds, the article draws conclusions not just with respect to the discourse but also with regard to the underlying issues. The relevance of this topic to Muslim‐Christian relations emerges in two ways. Firstly, attention is paid to the way in which Christianity, or the West (the two are sometimes conflated), provides a significant Other for the purposes of self‐definition; and secondly, a comparative perspective on certain issues reflects shared concerns between Muslims and Christians on the role of religion in the modem nation‐state.     

Muslim–Christian Relations in Tanzania with Particular Focus on the Relationship between Religious Instruction and Prejudice

The article evaluates religious education strategies in view of the need to cope adequately with prejudices between Muslims and Christians in Tanzania against the historical background of the two traditions and contemporary events. It shows that religious prejudice is the result of religious instruction provided within both communities, and is due either to negative stereotypes or ignorance of the tradition of the other. The challenge is to critically analyse the teaching contents, aims and methods of religious instruction of each tradition in order to unearth prejudicial elements, and to recommend ways and means of coping with them.     

The return of the displaced and Christian‐Muslim integration in postwar Lebanon

This study attempts to explain the slow cadence of resettlement of Lebanese Christians displaced among their Druze neighbors by a survey of DPs contemplating resettlement or already resettled in seven contiguous villages in the Harf district of Mount Lebanon. Considering that the causes and results of forcible internal displacement and resettlement are part of a single interwoven process, it identifies two factors that might impede or enhance the return — fear of those whose actions caused their exodus and financial and material considerations related to reconstruction as a result of war damage. In both cases it is hypothesized that government measures could intervene to condition the effect of these factors on resettlement decisions and would, in such a case, play a strong role in promoting Christian‐Muslim integration after the lengthy civil war. The results of the survey indicate that despite the trauma of displacement and a certain coldness toward the Druze, the major obstacle to rapid resettlement is DPs’ lack of adequate financial assistance from the state and delays in infrastructure and social institution repairs. The study suggests that if a comprehensive plan for mountain reconstruction were established international donors and emigrants might be more forthcoming with the contributions necessary to repair the torn social fabric of the mountains by bringing Muslims and Christians into each other's daily orbits once again.     

Christian–Muslim Relations in China and Japan in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries

ABSTRACT

Building on entries written for Christian–Muslim Relations: A Bibliographic History, this article explores Christian–Muslim relations in China and Japan in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The first half of the article considers Christian–Muslim relations amongst the Japanese in and outside Japan. Direct, indirect and potential interactions and contemporaneous commentaries are explored in order to build a picture of the sort of Christian–Muslim interactions that took place. However, due to the sparsity of sources, this section seeks more to develop and open potential avenues of enquiry than to provide definitive answers. The second section focuses on Christian–Muslim interactions in the work of Matteo Ricci and suggests that Christian–Muslim interactions in East Asia generally, and in China more specifically, were significant not only to the Jesuit mission itself, but also to the shaping of European knowledge of the East.     

Listening to the Language,Listening to the Words and Listening to the Spaces between the Words: Rhetoric and Pragmatics in the Performance of Christian–Muslim Relations

The article argues for the need to look beyond the texts used within the context of interreligious dialogue, and to focus just as much on the context and the way in which the texts are expected to be heard. It focuses specifically on Christian–Muslim dialogue at an event in Iran where the author was present. By looking at the use of rhetoric and pragmatics within his own contribution to this event, he raises questions about the way in which those contributing to dialogue communicate with the many different audiences involved, and the way in which their messages are received by those audiences. By focussing on this one event, the aim is to show what might be achieved through this kind of analysis and to call for more work to be done in this kind of way.     

Christian‐Muslim relations in the African context

Abstract

The course of Islam and Christianity in Africa as well as statistical figures suggest a wide variety within, as well as considerable divergence between, both religions in the many African contexts. Though the majority of African Muslims still stick to a ‘traditional African Islam’, we observe a resurgence of Islam reflecting a growing religious awareness, on the one hand, and tendencies towards an ideological re‐interpretation (Islamism), on the other. Trends in resurgent Islam are highlighted by the examples of Islamic internationalism and da'wa, the modernisation of Islamic education, and the proliferation of Islamic political groups all over the continent. Various dimensions of Christian—Muslim relations in Africa today show areas of conflict as well as of cooperation and exchange. Against the background of the economic and social disintegration of many African societies, there is no alternative to inter‐religious dialogue which must be based on an authentic African theological foundation, being rooted in the African heritage shared by Muslim and Christian communities alike.     

Christian–Muslim Relations in Kenya: A Catalogue of Events and Meanings

This article examines contemporary paradigms, events and modes of communal behaviour which represent and reflect historical perspectives and shifts in Christian–Muslim relations in Kenya, which have been variously characterized by conflict, concord, polemics and dialogue, based on archival records, official documents and interviews. Since Muslims and Christians co-exist side by side in Kenya, they are compelled to respond to the challenges of this reality. Events involving Muslims and Christians as influenced by colonial history and the struggle for independence, and various ways in which the communities are participating in a new nation, are considered with reference to constitutional debates regarding Islamic courts.     

Rethinking citizenship rights of non‐Muslims in an Islamic state: Rashid al‐Ghannūshi's contribution to the evolving debate

Of interest to Islamists of the twentieth century has been the question of minority rights in an Islamic state and of how non‐Muslim minorities should be treated: in particular, should they enjoy equal citizenship rights and responsibilities with Muslims? Traditional Islamic law did not accord equal rights to non‐Muslim protected minorities (ahl al‐dhimma), placing Muslims above them in several key areas. Notwithstanding the law, however, early Muslim rulers exercised some pragmatic discretion according to the imperatives of their day. With the Islamic revival of the twentieth century, the traditional view has been adopted by several Muslim thinkers and leaders, though the traditional view is at odds with the concept of the nation‐state. The nation‐state is built on a secular premise, with no single religious group favoured over another. Within this context, a number of Muslim thinkers have attempted to reinterpret the traditionally held view of ‘citizenship rights’. This article will focus on the contribution of one such thinker, the Tunisian Islamist Rashid al‐Ghannūshi, who espouses somewhat ‘liberal’ views on the issue and argues for rethinking on a number of related aspects. Commencing with some background to the problem, the article explores the issue of citizenship rights as espoused by Ghannūshi, and notes the key importance of the concept of justice as their basis, in his view. Specific rights examined are: freedom of belief, including for Muslims who wish to change their religion; the holding of public office by non‐Muslims; equal treatment for Muslims and non‐Muslims in terms of fiscal duties and benefits. Throughout his arguments, Ghannūshi emphasizes justice as central to the issue, and as the basis of interpreting and developing related rules and laws. Although Ghannūshi's views are not entirely new, he goes well beyond what has been acceptable in Islamic law, and his contribution should be considered important in the efforts at rethinking Islamic law in this area.     

Challenges and developments: Christian‐Muslim relations in the Middle East

Abstract

After surveying the Christian period in the Middle East, this article outlines the coming of Islam and the process of conversion to Islam, before summarising the situation in Christian‐Muslim relations in 1800 and the new developments that unfolded in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The main body of the article surveys recent (that is, post‐1950) developments, focusing on challenges such as the impact on local Christian‐Muslim relations of the creation of the state of Israel and the ‘Islamic revival’, the problems of Christian emigration, conversion and inter‐community clashes, and more positive developments such as the concern for more accurate analysis and reporting of Christian‐Muslim issues, the growth of dialogue between the communities through meetings, publications and efforts to educate future generations, and the establishment of Christian churches in regions where they have not existed for many centuries, particularly in the Gulf.     

Proving the non‐existence of God

Using Rawls's theory as illustration, I argue that any conception of justice which includes a commitment to equality of opportunity eventually must collide with a commitment to the family. I then contend that the link between justice and equality of opportunity cannot be severed by showing that one powerful attempt to do so founders. Borrowing from Martin Buber, I try to show that the perspective required by justice is different from and opposed to that required for intimate relations. Moreover, I argue that the institution of the family provides the soil without which human intimacy withers. Finally, I try to suggest that the need for human. I‐You encounters is a response to aspects of the human condition quite different from those which give rise to institutions of justice and the state.     

Implications of the Islamic revival for Christian‐Muslim dialogue in Asia

Abstract

After a review of the demographic balance between Christians and Muslims in Asia, this article looks at the different factors which influence the relations between them. A review of the growth of Christianity in Asia is then followed by an outline of the four phases of the spread of Islam and a survey of the causes of the contemporary Islamic revival in the region. Particular attention is devoted to the influence of Wahhabi ideas from what is now Saudi Arabia, the hopes engendered by the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the influence of the Palestinian struggle, the legacy of the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the consequences of the Gulf War of 1991, and the impact of al‐Qa'ida and the events of 11 September 2001. Recent tensions between Christians and Muslims in Indonesia and the Philippines are discussed, and the significance of the revivalist critique of modernity and the clash of values between anthropocentric liberalism and the theocentric system of revivalist Islam is assessed.     

The socio‐political factor in the Christian‐Muslim conflict in Nigeria

This study identifies ethno‐political factors as the major contributor to the Christian‐Muslim conflict in Nigeria, while indicating the secondary role of socio‐economic considerations and religious fundamentalism, as exemplified in the Zangon Katafriot of 1992 and the Tafawa Balewa and Bauchi disturbances of 1991 and 1995 respectively. The study reveals that the tension that erupted from these episodes merely ignited the bomb of ethno‐political rivalry between the minority and majority ethnic groups. The eruption of violence on each occasion was the manifestation of the collective anger of minorities that had been incubating over a long period against the domination of the Hausa/Fulani hegemony. Religious and socio‐economic considerations were only incidental factors. It is stressed that, even though the disturbances started as ethnic conflicts, they spread rapidly to other towns in the wake of rumours of their religious connotations. The Christian‐Muslim conflict, which is traced back to the 1979 Shari'a controversy, is believed to have done serious damage to the unity of Nigerian society. The article sees the practical solution to this problem as lying more in the use of the school system in inculcating the spirit of mutual acceptance and harmonious co‐existence, than in the creation of chiefdoms which tend to cause separation and division.