Motives for maintaining personal journal blogs

Although much has been learned about political and news blogs, there has been a lack of research on personal journal blogs. They deserve further research attention because of the implications blogs have in many bloggers' immediate social networks, as well as the opportunities for scientific inquiry in a rich and evolving communication environment. This study explored bloggers' motives for maintaining personal journal blogs, or blogs that resemble diaries about one's personal life. Stemming from the uses and gratifications perspective, antecedents (age, sex, loneliness, disclosiveness) and blogging motives composed a model for predicting the amount of blog use. Seven motives emerged from online survey data: helping/informing, social connection, pass time, exhibitionism, archiving/organizing, professionalism, and get feedback. Age, sex, loneliness, and disclosiveness predicted different motives, and the total model (age, sex, loneliness, disclosiveness, and motives) was useful for explaining 13% of the variance in the amount of blog use.     

Goal-Driven Cognition and Functional Behavior: The Fundamental-Motives Framework

Fundamental motives have direct implications for evolutionary fitness and orchestrate attention, memory, and social inference in functionally specific ways. Motivational states linked to self-protection and mating offer illustrative examples. When self-protective motives are aroused, people show enhanced attention to, and memory for, angry male strangers; they also perceive out-group members as especially dangerous. In contrast, when mating motives are aroused, men show enhanced attention to and memory for attractive members of the opposite sex; mating motives also lead men (but not women) to perceive sexual arousal in attractive members of the opposite sex. There are further functionally specific consequences for social behavior. For example, self-protective motives increase conformity among both men and women, whereas mating motives lead men (but not women) to engage in anticonformist behavior. Other motivational systems trigger different adaptive patterns of cognitive and behavioral responses. This body of research illustrates the highly specific consequences of fitness-relevant motivational states for cognition and behavior, and highlights the value of studying human motivation and cognition within an evolutionary framework.     

Motives for participation in physical activity by Brazilian adults

The present investigation examined the validity and reliability of a questionnaire which assessed motives of Brazilian adults for participation in physical activities, compared motives for participation in walking and fitness programs, and examined differences by sex, age, and education. Participants were 100 men and 138 women, ages 16 to 60 years (M=30.5, SD=11.4). Factor analysis identified four factors which were fairly consistent with previous research. Improvement in physical appearance and enjoyment were rated significantly more important reasons for participants in fitness programs than for walkers. Men were more motivated by social experience than women. Young adults rated importance lower in health and fitness and rated enjoyment, social experience, and improvement in appearance of higher importance. Health and fitness were considered more important by participants with more education. These results are consistent with previous research on the factors underlying motives for regular exercise and support the importance of considering differences associated with culture.     

Approach and avoidance sexual motives: Implications for personal and interpersonal well‐being

This research provides the first empirical investigation of how approach and avoidance motives for engaging in sex in intimate relationships are associated with personal well‐being and relationship quality. A 2‐week daily experience study of college student dating couples tested specific predictions from the theoretical model and included both longitudinal and dyadic components. Whereas approach sex motives were positively associated with personal and interpersonal well‐being, avoidance sex motives were negatively associated with well‐being. Engaging in sex for avoidance motives was particularly detrimental to the maintenance of relationships over time. Perceptions of a partner's motives for sex were also associated with well‐being. Implications for the conceptualization of sexuality in relationships along these two dimensions are discussed.     

Revealing Gender Double Standards in the Parenthood Norm Depends on Question Order

Becoming a parent has been described as a dominant social norm, especially for women. Though some research has indicated changes toward more flexible gendered parenthood norms, methodological issues may be masking the continued presence of a gender double standard. In line with the condition for activation of double standards, we postulated that endorsement of the parenthood norm would vary depending on the response context. Our aim was to analyze the parenthood norm for women and for men taking into account the response context in a quantitative survey. In a French nationally-representative sample, more than 4,000 female and male adults were asked whether a woman/man can have a fulfilled life without having children in two questions presented in a random order. Based on the literature on question-order effects, the answer to the first question should be influenced by the participant’s personal background (e.g., gender, parental status), i.e., the personal background context, whereas the question asked second should be influenced by the comparison with the first question, i.e. the social relational context. In the personal background context, the own-gender parenthood norm was endorsed more strongly than the other-gender parenthood norm by both female and male participants. In contrast, in the social relational context, the parenthood norm for women was endorsed more strongly than the parenthood norm for men by both female and male participants. Our results showed a strong gender double standard observed only in the comparative context and illustrates the need to use appropriate survey methodology to examine the presence of gendered social norms.

     

Different groups, different motives: identity motives underlying changes in identification with novel groups

Social identification is known to have wide-reaching implications, but theorists disagree about the underlying motives. Integrating motivated identity construction theory with recent social identity research, the authors predicted which motives underlie identification with two types of groups: interpersonal networks and social categories. In a five-wave longitudinal study of social identity processes among 268 new university residents, multilevel analyses showed that motives involved in identity enactment processes--self-esteem, belonging, and efficacy--significantly predicted within-person changes in identification with flatmates (an interpersonal network group), whereas motives involved in identity definition processes--meaning, self-esteem, and distinctiveness--significantly predicted within-person changes in identification with halls of residence (an abstract social category). This article discusses implications for research into identity motives and social identity.     

An Intersectional Analysis of the Workplace Experiences of African American Female Athletic Directors

Nationally representative data indicate that adults in the United States are increasingly delaying the decision to have children or are forgoing parenthood entirely. Although some empirical research has examined the social consequences of adults’ decision to be childfree, few studies have identified explanatory mechanisms for the stigma this population experiences. Based on the logic of backlash theory and research on retributive justice, the present research examined moral outrage as a mechanism through which voluntarily childfree targets are perceived less favorably than are targets with children for violating the prescribed social role of parenthood. In a between-subjects experiment, 197 undergraduates (147 women, 49 men, 1 participant with missing gender data) from a large U.S. Midwestern urban university were randomly assigned to evaluate a male or female married target who had chosen to have zero or two children. Participants completed measures of the target’s perceived psychological fulfillment and their affective reactions to the target. Consistent with earlier studies, voluntarily childfree targets were perceived as significantly less psychologically fulfilled than targets with two children. Extending past research, voluntarily childfree targets elicited significantly greater moral outrage than did targets with two children. My findings were not qualified by targets’ gender. Moral outrage mediated the effect of target parenthood status on perceived fulfillment. Collectively, these findings offer the first known empirical evidence of perceptions of parenthood as a moral imperative.     

"I know you self-handicapped last exam": gender differences in reactions to self-handicapping

Past research has shown that self-handicapping involves the trade-off of ability-related attributional benefits for interpersonal costs. Study 1 examined whether perceiver or target sex moderates impressions of self-handicapping targets. Although target sex was not an important factor, female perceivers were consistently more critical of behavioral self-handicappers. Two additional studies replicated this gender difference with variations of the handicap. Study 3 examined the motives inferred by perceivers and found that women not only view self-handicappers as more unmotivated but also report greater suspicion of self-handicapping motives; furthermore, these differences in perceived motives mediated sex differences in reactions to self-handicappers. Implications for the effectiveness of self-handicapping as an impression management strategy are discussed.     

Gender and self-disclosure revisited: personal and contextual variations in self-disclosure to same-sex acquaintances.

Male and female American students who differed in masculinity and in femininity self-disclosed to a same-sex stranger in contexts that made either social/expressive motives or instrumental motives salient. The results were consistent with the primary assertion that measures of sex role identity are better predictors of contextual variations in self-disclosure than is sex per se. Sex consistently failed to predict subjects' willingness to self-disclose, both within and across contexts, whereas femininity promoted self-disclosure in the context that was clearly social and expressive in character. Although masculinity failed to exert the expected facilitative impact on self-disclosure within the instrumental context, it nonetheless influenced the results; androgynous subjects, who scored high in both masculinity and femininity, were more self-revealing across contexts than was any other group.     

Aggression and offence motivation in prisoners: exploring the components of motivation in an adult male sample

This study examined aggression and offending motivation. Participants were 206 adult male prisoners. All completed the Aggression Motivation Questionnaire [Ireland, 2008], the Offending Motivation Questionnaire [Gudjonsson and Sigurdsson, 2004], the Multidimensional Anger Inventory [Siegel, 1986] and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding [Paulhus, 1991]. It was predicted that aggression motivation would separate into two factors, one reflecting proactive aggression and the other reactive aggression. It was predicted that aggression motives would vary by offence type. It was also predicted that the offending motives identified in previous research (i.e. Excitement, Compliance, Provocation and Financial) would be reflected in this study. Levels of anger and social desirability were also examined for their relationship with aggression and offending motives. Results indicated that aggression motivation separated into four core motives; protection, social recognition, perceived positive outcome, and pleasure. Violent and nonviolent offenders were found to differ in their underlying motives for recent acts of aggression. Anger was related to all core aggression motives, whereas social desirability was related only to some. Offending motives were similar to previous research although some differences were found. Results are discussed with reference to their theoretical and clinical implications.     

Parents’ experiences of starting and maintaining exercise: A qualitative systematic review

We conducted a systematic review of qualitative studies investigating the experiences of parents in relation to their uptake and maintenance of exercise, focusing on aerobic endurance-type exercise (e.g., running, cycling, swimming). The review aimed to synthesize qualitative findings relating to the motives, barriers, facilitators, emotions, and support of parents, and to suggest applied implications. Electronic bibliographic databases (Web of Knowledge, Google Scholar, Scopus, Academic Search Complete, and PsychArticles) were searched with relevant keywords to identify published peer-reviewed journal articles. Articles were included if they used a qualitative methodology to collect and analyse the data, and if they involved parents (of at least one child up to age 18) engaging in one or more type of aerobic endurance-type exercise from a position of limited fitness and parenthood. Ten studies were included in the final review, which used a narrative synthesis of data. Findings unique to the parent population were identified: parents were motivated to exercise as they believed it made them a better parent; mothers found it difficult overcoming the ‘ethic of care’; both mothers and fathers experienced the emotion of guilt, although its impact differed between parent roles; parenthood was associated with low confidence; and parents reported a lack of social support and self-regulatory capacity. These findings also reflect wider social determinants of health, in their racialized, gendered, and classed nature. To support parents in maintaining exercise uptake, the findings suggest that practitioners should promote reasons for exercise that align with parents’ core values to facilitate autonomous motivation.     

Sexual Motives: Cultural,Evolutionary, and Social Psychological Perspectives

Recently, scholars from a variety of disciplines have begun to investigate passionate love, sexual desire, and sexual behavior. Specifically, they have started to ask such questions as: “Why do young men and women engage in sexual liaisons?” “Why do they avoid such encounters?” Unfortunately, in attempting to answer such questions, scholars have generally focused on surveys and experiments within their own disciplines and have accorded scant attention to the discoveries of other disciplines. In this paper, we will begin by discussing three theoretical perspectives that have had the most to say about why young people seek out (or avoid) sex—cultural psychology, evolutionary psychology, and social psychology (where theorists often take a biopsychosocial approach). Then, we will (1) describe the many scales that have been used to assess sexual motives, and (2) review the multidisciplinary data which has been assembled in an attempt to answer the questions as to why people seek out (or avoid) sexual activity. Unfortunately, almost all this research was conducted by Western researchers, investigating the attitudes and behavior of young American men and women, who were heterosexual. (Alas, the wider-ranging data one would wish to consider is as yet only rarely available.) Through this multi-disciplinary synthesis, we hope to demonstrate the impact of culture, social experience, and biological imperatives in shaping young men’s and women’s motives for engaging in sexual encounters and provide a sort of “encyclopedia” of sexual motives measures and research for future scholars.     

Labor, delivery, and early parenthood: an attachment theory perspective

Having a baby is a powerful experience that, according to attachment theory, should activate the attachment system and elicit attachment needs and motives. The current study investigated first-time parents' perceptions of and responses to events surrounding labor and delivery and early parenthood. Couples expecting their first child completed measures of attachment orientations and questionnaires assessing key aspects of the experience of labor, delivery, and early parenthood. Attachment anxiety and avoidance significantly predicted individuals' perceptions of themselves and their partners, reactions to their partners' behavior, and emotional responses to their infants. Jealousy of the infant, perceptions of support given to or received from partners, and feelings of closeness to the infant were all associated with attachment orientations in theoretically meaningful ways.     

The utility of modern theories of intergroup bias for research on antecedents to team identification

ObjectivesMuch of the literature on team identification has focused on assessing outcomes to the construct rather than on motives for its development and maintenance. This article comments on research and theorising in social psychology that can contribute to an understanding of motives for team identification.DesignA review and comment on the application of theories of intergroup bias to the study of team identification.MethodFour modern theories of intergroup bias—social identity theory, optimal distinctiveness theory, uncertainty-identity theory, and terror management theory—are overviewed. Potential applications of these theories to future research on motives for team identification are also offered.ResultsIt is argued that the four theories share similar tenets with reference to motives for social identity. A programme of research that evaluates these motives in the context of sport team identification is offered.ConclusionsIt is hoped that this paper will stimulate research into precursors of team identification and that the findings from such research will help sport teams and governing bodies to promote or control certain types of spectator behaviour.     

Implicit motives and sexual conservatism as predictors of sexual behaviors

This study was designed to provide an assessment of the relationship between the two most important implicit motives and the most frequently studied sexual behaviors. A community sample of 102 men and 92 women completed measures of implicit power and affiliation-intimacy motives, sexual conservatism, social desirability, and sexual behavior. For men, high power motivation was positively associated with the number of sexual partners and the frequency of sex. There was an interaction between sexual conservatism and power motivation in women. For women low in sexual conservatism, high power motivation was positively associated with the number of sexual partners and with earlier initiation to intercourse and oral sex. There were few associations between affiliation-intimacy motivation and sexual behaviors; however, women high in this motive reported later initiation to oral sex.     

Fitting in and feeling fine: conformity and coping motives as mediators of the relationship between social anxiety and problematic drinking.

The present research was conducted to clarify the relationships among social anxiety, alcohol consumption, alcohol-related problems, and negative-reinforcement drinking motives among college students. Heavy drinking students (N = 316, 53.80% female) completed self-report measures of social anxiety, alcohol consumption, alcohol-related problems, and drinking motives. Findings indicated that students higher in social anxiety consumed less alcohol but experienced more negative consequences. Moreover, the relationship between social anxiety and negative consequences was mediated by coping and conformity drinking motives in addition to alcohol consumption. In the context of social anxiety, the current research demonstrates the importance of examining problematic drinking as distinct constructs: alcohol consumption and negative consequences. Findings are also discussed in terms of implications for interventions with socially anxious students.     

Motivation and social contexts: a crossnational pilot study of achievement, power, and affiliation motives

Previous research suggests that there is a relationship between social contexts (e.g., economic growth, engagement in wars) and motives within populations. In particular, high achievement motive is associated with subsequent economic growth, which in turn increases power motive. Increased national achievement and power motives have been argued to precede social changes that lead to decreased affiliation motives, and engagement in wars. The present study aimed to examine differences in achievement, power, and affiliation motives between 266 college students in China (a nation with sustained high economic growth) and 255 college students in the USA (a nation with previously strong but now slowing economic growth, and engaged in war). Analysis of personal strivings suggested that Chinese college students showed significantly higher levels of achievement motive than the American college students, but American college students showed significantly higher levels of affiliation motive than Chinese college students. Overall, males exhibited higher achievement motivation than females. No significant interaction effects were found for gender by location for any of the three motives. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research.     

Why is violent crime so common in the Americas?

Violent crimes, including murders, rapes, and assaults are substantially higher in the Americas than other regions of the world. This study investigated the role of single parenthood ratios in accounting for this regional variation in violent crime of 39 countries using INTERPOL data. It pitted the prediction of parental investment (calling for a delayed relationship between single parenthood and crime) against a mating aggression hypothesis that predicted a contemporaneous effect. Regression analyses found that current single parenthood ratios were strongly and consistently predictive of violent crimes whereas single parenthood ratios 18 years earlier were not and this conclusion remained following controls for income inequality and the population sex ratio. The results indicate that the regional difference in violent crime is best explained in terms of mating competition rather than reduced parental investment. Aggr. Behav. 32:1–9, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The transition from expectancy to parenthood: Impact of the firstborn child on men and women

In this short-term longitudinal study, 31 middle-class primigravidae and their husbands were seen once during the last trimester of pregnancy and again when their infants were 6 months old. At both times, a common core of self-assessment instruments was administered: mood scales, social change ratings, anticipation/experience of parenthood, and a modified Bem satisfaction scale. Some additional items were given at parenthood. For both men and women, expectancy was marked by optimism and contentment, despite some emotional and physical strain. Similarly, as parents of an infant, subjects rated the experience as highly positive. However, the transition to parenthood involved major role upheaval with both more positive and more negative changes reported by women than men. Despite these changes, women displayed considerable stability in mood and self-satisfaction over time and situation. In contrast, measures of the anticipation and self-reported experience of parenthood revealed no consistency for women; the types of mothers they turned out to be were unrelated to their expectations. Men successfully predicted their parenting behavior on more than half of the dimensions measured. The results were discussed in terms of the stresses inherent in role changes encountered during transitions from one stage of life to the next.This research was supported by funds from the Boystown Center for the Study of Youth Development at Stanford University. Special thanks to Barbara Aschenbrenner for her assistance in all phases of the research.     

Differentiating Among Motives for Norm Conformity

Two studies investigated why individuals conform to social norms. The authors propose that individuals conform to social norms to satisfy 3 general motives: accuracy, self-related, and other-related. Building on previous behavior prediction models, Study 1 found that measures of norms that identify specific motivational goals predicted behavior and intention better than did standard measures of social norms that consider only other-related motives for conformity. Study 2 investigated whether variations in the situational context are associated with alterations in motivational reasons for conforming to norms. Results indicated that one's motives for conforming to norms are sensitive to situational constraints. The findings from both studies suggest that, when predicting normative influences on behavior, research should address multiple motives underlying conformity with social norms.