Type A behavior,anger expression,and reactions to anger imagery

The experiment investigated the effects of Type A behavior, anger expression, and gender on perceptions of control and heart rate. Jenkins Activity Survey defined Type A and B subjects, categorized as either high or low in anger expression, were asked to recall, image, and generate self-referent statements about angry situations. State anger and heart rate were measured during all of the anger induction conditions, and ratings of imagery vividness and perceptions of control for self and others were taken following the recalled and imaged anger conditions. The results, with both the heart rate and self-report measures, indicated that the effects of the independent variables were interactive and situationally dependent. Type A behavior was associated with increased heart rate in two experimental conditions (mood anger and recalled anger), and, in one instance, this effect was amplified in male subjects (recalled anger). The self-report results yielded interactional effects that most commonly took the form of high anger expression, with male Type A's providing higher ratings of state anger, more vivid anger imagery, and lower perceived self-control ratings than did other categories of subjects. Taken together, these results suggest that anger expressiveness, particularly among males, amplifies the usual reactions attributed to Type A's, and that such effects are mediated by the threat of loss of control. Further, the observed interactive relationships limit the generalizability of A/B differences and raise definitional questions about Type A behavior.     

Self-esteem,need for approval,and reactions to personal evaluations

In accordance with theoretical predictions concerning the reactions of high and low self-esteem individuals, Ss with low self-esteem scores showed an increase in liking for a positive evaluator of self and a decrease in liking for a negative evaluator of self. Ss with high self-esteem scores and low Marlowe-Crowne scores did not show a significant change in liking for either a positive or negative evaluator of self. Ss with high self-esteem scores and high Marlowe-Crowne scores showed a pattern of reaction similar to that of low self-esteem Ss. It was suggested that a sizable percentage of high self-esteem scorers should be reclassified as low self-esteem. This subgroup seems to obtain high scores on a self-esteem inventory by presenting themselves in an overly favorable as opposed to honest manner (the defining characteristic of a high Marlowe-Crowne scorer) but shows behavior patterns similar to low self-esteem individuals.     

Type A behavior pattern and the judgment of control

We investigated the control judgments of Type A and B actors and observers after five tasks in which actual response-outcome contingency and success were varied systematically. Results indicated that, overall, actors provided higher control judgments than did observers, and both actual contingency and success influenced judged control. Type A and B actors did not differ in their self-perceptions of control but observers judged the Type A actors to have exerted more control than the Type B actors, primarily on positive contingency tasks. These findings suggest that Type As, because of their more active, dynamic style, may be credited by observers with more control or competence than is warranted. By contrast, the more relaxed style of the Type B may lead to lower than warranted evaluations of control or competence. Lastly, Type As were found to learn the contingencies better than Type Bs with important implications for the actual exercise of control.     

Type A behavior, personality hardiness, and cardiovascular responses to stress

Type A behavior and hardiness were examined as predictors of cardiovascular responses to stress in 68 male undergraduates. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) and heart rate were monitored while subjects performed a difficult mirror-tracing task. Type A assessments based on the Structured Interview, but not those based on the Jenkins Activity Survey, were associated with significantly enhanced SBP and DBP elevations. Hardiness was associated with significantly reduced DBP responsiveness. In addition, a significant interaction indicated that the Type B-high hardiness group showed the least DBP reactivity. A near-significant interaction (p = .06) suggested that Type B-high hardiness subjects also reported the least anger. Further exploration of the data indicated that the challenge component of hardiness accounted for its relationship to DBP reactivity. These results have implications both for the psychophysiologic study of Type A behavior and for understanding the health-promoting effects of hardiness.     

Religion,Type A behavior,and health

In a study of air traffic controllers, religious differences are found in the way Type A behavior is associated with several health status indicators. Associations between the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS) and physical illness incidence, health-promotive behavior, diastolic and systolic blood pressure, subjective distress and impulse control problems, and alcohol consumption are examined by religious attendance, religious affiliation, and change in affiliation. Findings confirm that Type A does not vary significantly by religion. However, there are several significant findings between Type A and various health indicators. Type A is associated with illness incidence, overall and more strongly in several religion, subgroups. Type A and alcohol consumption are related positively in Protestants and converts, and negatively in churchgoing Catholics. Type A is related to impulse control problems in churchgoing Protestants and to subjective distress in churchgoing Catholics. Finally, in individuals with weak or no religious ties, Type A is associated with lower blood pressure. This last finding suggests that in some people (for example, the irreligious or unchurched), the coronary-prone behavior pattern may have cardiovascular effects which are salutary in at least one respect.The authors wish to thank Dr. Kyriakos S. Markides and Laura A. Ray for their assistance with this study. Address requests for reprints to Dr. Levin at the Institute of Gerontology, 300 North Ingalls, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.     

Perceived coercion, resistance to persuasion, and the Type A behavior pattern

Three studies are reported, which tested the notion that persons possessing the Type A “coronary-prone” behavior pattern would be more susceptible to the experience of psychological reactance than would Type Bs, i.e., persons without that pattern. In Experiment 1, subjects exposed to a persuasive communication that was either low or high in coerciveness rated the degree of coercive intent behind the communication. Type As perceived greater coerciveness overall than Type Bs, a finding that was most reliable in the low coercion condition. In Experiment 2, subjects' postcommunication opinions were assessed, so that resistance to persuasion could be measured. A gender difference within Pattern A emerged from this study. Male Type As resisted the persuasion attempt to an equivalent degree whether it was low or high in coerciveness; female Type As displayed comparable resistance in the low coercion condition, but tended to be even more resistant in the high coercion condition. In contrast, both male and female Type Bs displayed persuasion in the low coercion condition, and resisted (to a degree comparable to Type As) in the high coercion condition. Experiment 3 further investigated resistance to persuasion among females, using a different issue for the persuasion attempt. Type A women again resisted more in the high coercion than the low coercion condition. Type B women displayed no evidence of resistance in either condition. Discussion centers on the observed gender difference and the possible theoretical importance of the notion that Type As perceive threat at lower objective levels than do Type Bs.     

Type A behavior, age, and psychological well-being

We investigated psychological well-being among Type A and B individuals across the age span. We hypothesized that the hard-driving, achievement-oriented lifestyle exhibited by Type As would be adaptive in younger age groups, but would lead to lower well-being in later life because of increased limitations on the range and level of one's activities. By contrast, the more relaxed, easygoing style of the Type B matches better the slower pace of old age, but is not as conducive to success in younger age groups. Thus we expected older Type Bs more than younger Type Bs to exhibit greater well-being. Results confirmed these hypotheses, but indicated that psychological differences may be mediated in part by differences in physical well-being. Furthermore, experience with life events, and the structure and function of social networks, may contribute to the differences in well-being.     

A group behavior modification approach to adolescent obesity

This article describes a group weight control project with severely obese adolescent girls in a medical setting. Behavior modification and nutritional principles were utilized with peer group interaction. Significant others were included through separate group meetings. This approach produced small amounts of net weight loss for the girls. The drop-outs continued to have a net gain. As a treatment method, this program was more effective for these girls than previous individual clinic contacts had been. When losing weight, the girls tended to use behavior modification techniques more often, and their diets became more adequate nutritionally. Development of group cohesion was tenuous and temporary. Girls who were functioning more independently appeared to do better in weight loss. Disinterested significant others were preferable to nonsupportive ones. A predictive factor was identified, the girls' perception of control. This was measured by the I-E test. Those with a more internalized perception of control were more likely to continue with the program and more likely to lose weight. Because the patient group was small, findings are tentative. However, this program helped to define particular areas that deserve further exploration.     

Perceived group variability and dispositional need for closure

Based on the closure motivation theory proposed by Kruglanski and Webster (1996), it was hypothesized that the extent of perceived variability of target group members would be related to dispositional need for closure. Israeli teachers (n = 160) judged their professors by means of two methods and answered the need for cognitive closure questionnaire (NFCS, Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). The findings show that need for closure is related to social judgment. The perception of participants high in need for closure was less differentiated and more extreme, in comparison to participants low in need for closure. Findings also yielded that measures of variability are method dependent.     

Perceived group variability and dispositional need for closure

Based on the closure motivation theory proposed by Kruglanski and Webster (1996), it was hypothesized that the extent of perceived variability of target group members would be related to dispositional need for closure. Israeli teachers (n = 160) judged their professors by means of two methods and answered the need for cognitive closure questionnaire (NFCS, Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). The findings show that need for closure is related to social judgment. The perception of participants high in need for closure was less differentiated and more extreme, in comparison to participants low in need for closure. Findings also yielded that measures of variability are method dependent.     

Training elementary aged peer behavior managers to control small group programmed mathematics

The effects of a training procedure and two maintenance contingencies on consequence-dispensing behavior were investigated. Four peer behavior managers were trained to supervise small groups of subjects (four to six per group) working in programmed math materials and were compared with a teacher skilled in the use of social and point reinforcement and response cost. Manager training was differentially effective in accelerating manager's rates of appropriate social and point dispensing. Having manager reinforcement contingent upon manager consequence-dispensing resulted in moderately higher rates of appropriate social and point dispensing for three of four subjects than did having manager reinforcement contingent upon group study behavior. Two managers exposed to the group performance contingency before the manager performance contingency increased inappropriate social and point-dispensing behaviors to pretraining baseline levels. Subsequent change to the manager performance contingency was effective in reducing the inappropriate dispensing behavior of only one of the two managers.     

Type A behavior pattern, sex, and social support

Low social support has been suggested as a contributing factor to cardiac disease in some individuals with Type A Behavior Pattern. A number of studies have focused on the relationship between social support and Type A traits in subjects without cardiac disease as a means of evaluating this hypothesis; however, results of these studies have been confusing. In the current study, involving samples of adolescents and working adults, there was a significant positive correlation between Type A scores and satisfaction with social support in men but not in women.