STRUCTURAL MODELS OF THE RELATIONS OF ASSAULT SEVERITY, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AVOIDANCE COPING, SELF-BLAME, AND PTSD AMONG SEXUAL ASSAULT SURVIVORS

A number of studies have identified which survivors of sexual assault are more likely to develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Most correlates that have been identified have been at the individual level. Insufficient attention has been given to whether survivors' social interactions impact their individual responses to assault and subsequent levels of psychological symptomatology. In this study, a large, diverse sample of community-residing women ( N = 636) was surveyed. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationships between assault severity, global support, negative social reactions, avoidance coping, self-blame, traumatic life experiences, and PTSD symptoms. The results suggest that negative social reactions and avoidance coping are the strongest correlates of PTSD symptoms and that the association typically observed between victim self-blame and PTSD symptoms may be partially due to the effect of negative social reactions from others. These reactions may contribute to both self-blame and PTSD. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.     

PSYCHOLOGICAL OUTCOMES AMONG LESBIAN SEXUAL ASSAULT SURVIVORS: AN EXAMINATION OF THE ROLES OF INTERNALIZED HOMOPHOBIA AND EXPERIENTIAL AVOIDANCE

This study explored the relations among internalized homophobia (IH), experiential avoidance, and psychological symptom severity in a community sample of 72 lesbian sexual assault survivors. Results indicated that IH is associated with both experiential avoidance and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. In addition, experiential avoidance is related to both PTSD and depression symptom severity. Finally, experiential avoidance completely mediated the relation between IH and PTSD symptom severity. The implications of these findings are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.     

THE EFFECTS OF DEFENDANT AND COMPLAINANT INTOXICATION ON MOCK JURORS' JUDGMENTS OF SEXUAL ASSAULT

The present study investigates the impact of participant gender, rape-myth beliefs, and alcohol intoxication on the part of either the defendant and/or alleged victim on mock jurors' decisions within the context of a sexual-assault trial. Participants ( N = 152) were exposed to a sexual-assault case in which the beverage consumption (alcohol, cola) on the part of both the defendant and complainant prior to the sexual intercourse was varied systematically. Results indicated that when the defendant had consumed alcohol, as opposed to cola, participants were more likely to view the case as one of assault, to perceive the defendant as less credible, and to find the defendant guilty. When the complainant had consumed alcohol, as opposed to cola, participants found the complainant's claim less credible and were less likely to view the defendant as guilty. In addition, participants' rape-myth acceptance, which was related to guilt, mediated the relation between gender of participant and guilt.     

THE EFFECTS OF FRAME OF REFERENCE ON RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS ABOUT SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AND PERPETRATION

Self-reports of sexual assault are affected by a variety of factors including the number of questions, question phrasing, and context. Participants (307 women, 166 men) were randomly assigned to one of two forms of a questionnaire. One form had the tactics used to obtain forced sex as the initial frame of reference, whereas the other form had the type of sex that was forced as the initial frame of reference. Seventy-five percent of the women who received the tactics-first version reported that they had at least one victimization experience since the age of 14, as compared to 62% of the women who received the type-of-sex-first version. Sixty-nine percent of the men who received the tactics-first version reported that they had at least one perpetration experience since the age of 14, as compared to 36% of the men who received the type-of-sex-first version. These findings have implications for how questionnaires should be designed to maximize reporting of sexual assault incidents.     

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL INTOXICATION AND VICTIMIZATION HISTORY ON WOMEN'S SEXUAL ASSAULT RESISTANCE INTENTIONS: THE ROLE OF SECONDARY COGNITIVE APPRAISALS

This study used an experimental paradigm to investigate the role of secondary cognitive appraisals in women's sexual assault resistance and whether these appraisals mediated influences of alcohol and prior victimization. After consuming a beverage (control, placebo, moderate, or high dose), 351 women projected themselves into a simulated interaction with a sexually aggressive man. Four types of secondary appraisals (shock at the man's behavior, concern about his feelings, uncertainty in the situation, conflict about what to do) and three resistance strategies (assertive, polite, passive) were examined. Path modeling revealed that, as expected, intoxication and prior sexual victimization influenced secondary appraisals, which in turn influenced intended resistance. Prior adult sexual assault (ASA) and childhood sexual abuse (CSA) also had direct effects: ASA negatively predicted assertive resistance and CSA positively predicted passivity. Findings suggest that secondary appraisals are key targets for intervention to facilitate effective resistance, thereby reducing the risk of adult sexual victimization.     

A PROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SEXUAL ASSAULT EXPERIENCES An Extension of Previous Findings

Research has indicated that sexual assault on college campuses is pervasive (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987) and that a history of sexual victimization serves as a risk factor for future victimization (Gidycz, Coble, Latham, & Layman, 1993). The purpose of the present investigation was to extend the findings of Gidycz et al. (1993) in examining the link among sexual victimization experiences. College women were evaluated for child and adolescent sexual victimization, family adjustment, alcohol use, psychological adjustment, interpersonal functioning, and sexual behavior. Women were reevaluated at 3, 5–6, and 9 months for adult victimization, psychological adjustment, interpersonal functioning, and sexual behavior. Loglinear analysis indicated that chances of being victimized in one time period increased with greater severity of victimization in the preceding time period. The path analysis assessing the mediating effects of these variables on victimization experiences was partially supported. Implications for future research and preventative efforts are discussed.     

SEVERITY OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE AND REVICTIMIZATION: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF COPING AND TRAUMA SYMPTOMS

Child sexual abuse (CSA) has consistently been associated with the use of avoidant coping; these coping methods have been associated with increased trauma symptoms, which have, in turn, been linked to increased risk for adult sexual revictimization. Given these previous findings, the purpose of the current study was to test a model that conceptualized the relationships among these variables. Specifically, CSA severity was conceptualized as leading to the use of avoidant coping, which was proposed to lead to maintenance of trauma symptoms, which would, in turn, impact severity of revictimization indirectly. This comprehensive model was tested in a cross-sectional study of a large, geographically diverse sample of college women. Participants were 99 female undergraduates classified as having experienced CSA who completed measures of abuse history, coping style, current levels of trauma symptoms, and adult sexual revictimization. Multivariate path analysis indicated that the data fit the hypothesized model for verbally coercive, but not physically aggressive, revictimization. Specifically, increased CSA severity was associated with the use of avoidant coping, which, in turn, predicted greater levels of trauma symptomatology and severity of sexual coercion in adulthood. Although cross-sectional in nature, findings from this study suggest that coping strategies and trauma symptoms may represent modifiable factors that place women at increased risk for verbally coercive sexual revictimization.     

THE SEXUAL ASSAULT AND SECONDARY VICTIMIZATION OF FEMALE VETERANS: HELP-SEEKING EXPERIENCES WITH MILITARY AND CIVILIAN SOCIAL SYSTEMS

A sample of predominantly low-income, African American female veterans and reservists seeking health care in a Veterans' Administration medical clinic was screened for a history of sexual assault since age 18. Overall, 39% had been sexually assaulted in adulthood. Those who had been sexually victimized were asked to describe one assault incident in detail: 38% described an assault that occurred during military service and 62% described one that occurred before or after military service. This study also examined victims' postassault help-seeking experiences and the degree to which they encountered "secondary victimization" (i.e., victim-blaming behaviors and practices engaged in by legal and medical personnel, which exacerbates victims' trauma). Most victims who sought help from the legal or medical systems (military or civilian) reported that this contact made them feel guilty, depressed, anxious, distrustful of others, and reluctant to seek further help. Secondary victimization was significantly positively correlated with posttraumatic stress symptomatology.     

THE EVALUATION OF A SEXUAL ASSAULT SELF-DEFENSE AND RISK-REDUCTION PROGRAM FOR COLLEGE WOMEN: A PROSPECTIVE STUDY

The present study evaluated the efficacy of a sexual assault risk-reduction program that included a physical self-defense component for college women ( N = 500). Program group women significantly increased their protective behaviors over the 6-month follow-up period compared to the waiting-list control group. However, there were no significant differences between the two groups regarding rates of sexual victimization, assertive communication, or feelings of self-efficacy over the follow-up periods. Program group women who were victimized during the 3-month follow-up period evidenced less self-blame and greater offender blame for their assaults than control group women who were victimized following the program. Given that program women evidenced a greater awareness of sexual assault at the end of the study than control group women, the difficulty in addressing the impact of programming on rates of sexual victimization is discussed.     

THE EFFECTS OF CHILDHOOD SEXUAL MESSAGES ON AFRICAN-AMERICAN AND WHITE WOMEN'S ADOLESCENT SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

To clarify the relationship between sexual communication and sexual behavior, multiple components of sexual messages recalled from child hood were examined in a community sample of 248 African-American and White women. Respondents were matched on a predesignated set of demographic variables and were interviewed using the Wyatt Sexual History Questionnaire. We anticipated that women's recollections of messages from parents and television would differ both individually and across ethnicity, and that messages recalled from parents would be multidimensional, varying in tone (positive vs. negative) across time (childhood vs. adolescence) and form (verbal vs. nonverbal). We also expected that the presence and tone of specific types of messages re called would be associated with risk-related sexual behavior. Results confirmed predictions concerning differential interpretations of messages, and ethnicity emerged as a strong mediating variable. The implications of the specific types of parental messages influencing behavior are discussed.     

CAREGIVING HISTORY AND PRENATAL DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS IN LOW-INCOME ADOLESCENT AND YOUNG ADULT WOMEN: MODERATING AND MEDIATING EFFECTS

Prenatal depressive symptoms have been linked to negative outcomes for mothers and children. Using attachment theory as a framework, this study examined developmental differences in the interpersonal context of prenatal depressive symptoms among adolescents (age 14 to 19 years; n = 352) and young adults (age 20 to 24 years; n = 348). Participants included low-income, single, predominantly African American and Latina women. Moderating and mediating factors were found in the relation between caregiving history (perceived unavailability and inconsistency of maternal and paternal figures during childhood) and depressive symptoms. For pregnant adolescents, maternal unavailability predicted depressive symptoms whereas maternal inconsistency did not. In contrast, for pregnant young women, only maternal inconsistency predicted depressive symptoms; and this association was mediated by perceptions of prenatal support. For both groups, paternal caregiving history had a small yet independent association with depressive symptoms. Results highlight the need to consider developmental differences in the interpersonal context of prenatal depressive symptoms in delivering mental health interventions to young women of color.     

EVALUATION OF A SEXUAL ASSAULT RISK REDUCTION AND SELF-DEFENSE PROGRAM: A PROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF A REVISED PROTOCOL

The current study extends the development and evaluation of an existing and previously evaluated sexual assault risk reduction program with a self-defense component for college women ( N = 300). The program protocol was revised to address psychological barriers to responding assertively to risky dating situations, and a placebo-control group was utilized rather than a wait-list control group. Relative to the placebo-control group, the program was effective in increasing levels of self-protective behaviors, self-efficacy in resisting against potential attackers, and use of assertive sexual communication over a 4-month interim. Results also suggested reduction of incidence of rape among program participants over the 2-month follow-up. Implications for future development and evaluation of sexual assault risk reduction programming are presented.     

THE EFFECTS OF CONFLICT AND STRESS ON SEXUAL AND AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN MALE MICE

LAGERSPETZ, K. & HYVARINEN, S. The effects of conflict and stress on sexual and aggressive behaviour in male mice. Scand. J. Psychol. , 1071, 12, 119–127. –A conflict consisting in a conditioned response performed in order to drink, coupled with electric shocks, did not affect aggressive and sexual behaviour in a neutral environment. Conditioning only or shocks only also did not have any effects. When tested in the shuttle box, the groups showed differences in behaviour. A generally higher level of activation was shown by the experimental groups. The results are discussed in terms of the concept of 'experimental neurosis'.     

INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE AND INFANT SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: THE MODERATING EFFECTS OF MATERNAL TRAUMA SYMPTOMS

The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of intimate partner violence (IPV) on infant regulatory difficulties at 3 months of age and infant socioemotional problems at 12 months of age. Maternal trauma symptoms were explored as potential moderators of these associations. Participants included 120 primarily low‐income, ethnically diverse women and their infants. Results revealed that infants whose mothers experienced IPV during pregnancy did not have significantly more regulatory difficulties at 3 months than did infants whose mothers did not experience prenatal IPV. However, infants whose mothers experienced IPV during the first year after birth displayed significantly more socioemotional problems at 12 months, as evidenced by both maternal report and observational data. Furthermore, maternal posttraumatic stress avoidance symptoms served as a moderator of the association between prenatal IPV and infant regulatory difficulties at 3 months whereas maternal posttraumatic stress hyperarousal and reexperiencing symptoms served as moderators of the association between IPV during the first year after birth and infant socioemotional problems at 12 months. The findings highlight the detrimental impact that IPV can have on very young children and the importance of maternal trauma symptoms as a context for understanding the effect of IPV on young children's functioning.     

THE EFFECTS OF CHILDHOOD FAMILY STRESS ON WOMEN'S DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS:

This study uses a life course approach to observe the interaction between stressful childhood events and recent undesirable events to predict depressive symptoms in women. Data are from a community sample ( N = 205) of adult daughters from the Cornell Women's Roles Project, aged 26–58 years. Results indicate that women who experienced mild stressors during childhood are less likely to have depressive responses to undesirable events than are those who did not have stressful family backgrounds. This buffering influence appears to be partially mediated through a woman's belief in her control over external events. In the absence of childhood strains, a close father–daughter relationship during childhood may also teach women protective mastery skills. Overall, findings suggest that women's differing depressive responses to undesirable events follow a developmental pathway beginning with early childhood experiences. We suggest that the milder childhood stressors measured in this study stimulated an adaptive family environment from which these women were able to garner life course coping strategies.     

THE EFFECTS OF WIVES' EMPLOYMENT ON HUSBANDS' JOB AND LIFE SATISFACTION

Previous research has established that wives' employment has a negative effect on the mental health of husbands. This result is not yet well understood. Analyzing survey data from a national sample of workers, this study focuses on the work domain to investigate this result further. Findings reveal that wives' employment has negative effects on husbands' job and life satisfaction. These results suggest that the overall negative mental health effect may derive, in part, from the occupational domain.     

POSTPARTUM BONDING DIFFICULTIES AND ADULT ATTACHMENT STYLES: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION AND CHILDBIRTH‐RELATED PTSD

Despite decades of research demonstrating the role of adult attachment styles and early mother–infant bonding in parenting behaviors and maternal mental health, these constructs have seldom been studied together. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between attachment styles and specific bonding difficulties of mothers. In addition, as postpartum depression and childbirth‐related posttraumatic stress symptoms have been associated with both constructs, we explored their possible mediation effect. One hundred fourteen mothers, 4 to 12 weeks’ postpartum, completed a demographic questionnaire, the Adult Attachment Style Questionnaire (M. Mikulincer, V. Florian, & A. Tolmacz, 1990), the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire (L.F. Brockington, C. Fraser, & D. Wilson, 2006), the Modified Perinatal Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Questionnaire (J.L. Callahan, S.E. Borja, & M.T. Hynan, 2006), and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (J.L. Cox, G. Chapman, D. Murray, & P. Jones, 1996), using an online survey system. As predicted, insecure attachment styles were associated with bonding difficulties wherein anxious/ambivalent attachment was associated with greater infant‐focused anxiety, mediated by postpartum depression but not childbirth‐related PTSD symptoms. In contrast, greater avoidant attachment style was associated with greater rejection and anger, mediated by childbirth‐related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but not depression symptoms. The current study confirmed the association of different attachment styles with bonding as well as the mediating roles of childbirth‐related PTSD and postpartum depression symptoms. Future psychological interventions may utilize such evidence to target interventions for bonding disorders in accordance with individual differences.     

FEMINISM BETWEEN THE SHEETS: SEXUAL ATTITUDES AMONG FEMINISTS, NOnFEMINISTS, AND EGALITARIANS

To better understand the relation of feminist identification to sexuality, we compared the attitudes of feminist, egalitarian, and nonfeminist undergraduate women ( N = 342) in five domains: (a) erotophilia (one's positive affective or evaluative responses to sexual stimuli), (b) sexual assertiveness, (c) perceived self-efficacy for safer sex, (d) sexual satisfaction, and (e) support of the sexual double standard. Significant results of ANOVA analyses included: Feminists were more erotophilic than egalitarians and nonfeminists, egalitarians were the most confident in their ability to be assertive with a partner regarding condom use, and egalitarians and nonfeminists were more supportive of a traditional sexual double standard than feminists. Consistent with Zucker (2004) , we argue that a distinctive characteristic of egalitarians is that their acceptance of feminist values with regard to their own sexual lives does not translate into a critique of gendered sexual norms for other women.     

THE INFLUENCE OF LAYOFF SEVERITY ON POSTLAYOFF UNION COMMITMENT AMONG SURVIVORS: THE MODERATING EFFECT OF THE PERCEIVED LEGITIMACY OF A LAYOFF ACCOUNT

This study used a moderated cross-level design to predict union commitment among 355 union survivors after layoffs. Survivors experiencing varying degrees of layoffs at 15 job sites judged the legitimacy of the company's layoff explanation. In each case, the account implicated the union as the agent responsible for the layoff decision. Company records were used to aggregate layoff severity within job site. Survey measures were used to assess retrospective belief in the account and commitment to the union after the layoff event. Based on interactional justice theory, a significant interaction was predicted between layoff severity and belief in the account as related to postlayoff union commitment. Survivors with higher levels of belief in the account were expected to be less committed to the union than those with moderate or lower levels of belief under more severe layoffs. Moderated regression analyses of overall commitment supported the expected interaction. Regression analyses of commitment components revealed that only willingness to work for the union was affected by the interaction. Additional analyses, in which the willingness to work component was regressed onto layoff severity within high to low belief subgroups, were also consistent with the prediction. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings for company and union officials in managing union survivors are discussed.