Perceived social image and life satisfaction across cultures

We studied the relationship between perceived social image and life satisfaction in four different cultural groups. One-hundred nine Indian (63 females, 46 males), 67 Pakistani/Bangladeshi (36 females, 31 males), 76 White British (43 females, 33 males), and 94 European Americans (43 females, 48 males) completed measures on the cultural importance of social image, positive and negative emotions, academic achievement, and perceived social image. Indian and Pakistani/Bangladeshi participants valued social image more than White British and European-American participants. Consistent with this value difference, a positive perceived social image predicted life satisfaction among Indian and Pakistani/Bangladeshi participants only. For these participants, perceived social image predicted life satisfaction above and beyond the effects of emotions and academic achievement. Academic achievement only predicted life satisfaction among White British and European Americans. Emotions were significant predictors of life satisfaction for all participants.     

Personality,social support,and anxiety among adolescents preparing for university entrance examinations in turkey

This study aimed to investigate the importance of different sources of perceived social support, sociotropic and autonomic personality dispositions, achievement expectation, and importance of academic achievement in predicting anxiety symptoms of male and female students who were preparing for the university entrance exam. Three hundred and forty students with ages varying from 16 to 21 participated in the study. Separate multiple regression analyses were run for males and females in predicting anxiety symptoms. The total Sociotropy score and the total Social Support score predicted anxiety for females, whereas for males, anxiety was predicted by four variables, namely, Achievement Expectancy, Concern over Approval, Social Support from Family, and Social Support from Friends. Implications of these results were discussed. This study was supported by the Turkish Academy of Sciences under the Young Scientist Award Program. (TG-TUBA-GEB>P/2002-l-ll).     

Personality, social support, and anxiety among adolescents preparing for university entrance examinations in turkey

This study aimed to investigate the importance of different sources of perceived social support, sociotropic and autonomic personality dispositions, achievement expectation, and importance of academic achievement in predicting anxiety symptoms of male and female students who were preparing for the university entrance exam. Three hundred and forty students with ages varying from 16 to 21 participated in the study. Separate multiple regression analyses were run for males and females in predicting anxiety symptoms. The total Sociotropy score and the total Social Support score predicted anxiety for females, whereas for males, anxiety was predicted by four variables, namely, Achievement Expectancy, Concern over Approval, Social Support from Family, and Social Support from Friends. Implications of these results were discussed. This study was supported by the Turkish Academy of Sciences under the Young Scientist Award Program. (TG-TUBA-GEB>P/2002-l-ll).     

Differential Factors Affecting Male and Female Academic Performance in High School

An attempt was made to explain the combined effect of several factors on academic performance and to explore whether this effect was different for males and females. The independent variables were achievement motive, locus of control, dependency, and sex; the dependent variable was cumulative grade point average. Ss were 365 male and female American high school students from grades 10 through 12. The highly achievement motivated, internal, low dependent, female students had significantly higher grades. There were also two significant sex interaction effects, indicating that some factors that influence achievement operate differently for males and females.     

Sex differences in achievement/career motivation of Iranian boys and girls

The relationships of early socialization, socioeconomic status (SES), religion, community discrimination, and community resources (all as possible predictor variables) to achievement/career motivation (the criterion variables) for 200 Iranian high school senior girls and boys were studied. Multiple regression analyses were performed to identify how much variance was accounted for by each predictor variable. In addition, a discriminant function analysis based on four linear combinations of the predictors for high and low SES, and for males and females, was performed to identify the best and strongest predictors. Through content analysis of the projective protocols representing achievement motivation, no significant achieving imagery was found for these Iranian subjects. The measure did, however, provoke imagery indicative of the subjects' preoccupation with marriage and/or affiliation with the opposite sex. Consistent with research findings in the United States, Iranian females scored lower in career motivation and expressed less belief in sex discriminatory myths than did males. The upper SES subjects of both sexes showed a higher level of career aspiration, and perceived more community resources for their careers, than did the lower SES groups. Sex, SES, community discrimination, and heterosexual interest contributed more heavily than the other predictors in predicting the variance of career motivation. Possible implications of the results for improving Iranian women's achievement/career motivation are discussed. A need for a more cross-culturally appropriate measure of achievement motivation is suggested.This study was supported, in part, by the University of Illinois Center for International and Comparative Studies. The author is indebted to Drs. Martin L. Maehr and Helen S. Farmer of the University of Illinois for their direction and advice in conducting this study.     

感知社会支持与学生学业成就关系的元分析：学习投入的中介作用

学业成就是衡量学生学习认知能力和检测其学习效果的重要指标,受到感知社会支持和学习投入等因素的显著影响,先前的研究已经考察了这两个因素对学业成就的共同作用机制,但感知社会支持与学业成就的关系强度不明,且尚不完全清楚中介效应、调节效应对二者关系的影响。因此当前研究采用元分析方法检验效应量的可靠性、学习投入的中介效应以及一系列调节效应。研究共纳入符合要求的原始文献41篇,含78个研究。结果发现：(1)感知社会支持及子类型与学业成就呈现显著的正相关,但效应值偏小,即二者之间存在的是弱相关。此外,感知社会支持及子类型显著正向预测学习投入,且对学习投入的效应量高于对学业成就的效应量。(2)学段仅对感知教师支持的调节效应显著,学业成就指标调节了感知社会支持及子类型与学业成就之间的关系,而经济水平和文化背景的调节效应不显著。(3)学习投入在感知社会支持及子类型对学业成就的影响中起到部分中介作用,且中介效应只存在于初中群体,在高中群体中介效应不显著。     

Sex-role androgyny and patterns of causal attribution for academic achievement

In order to test the role of social psychological factors in the underrepresentation of women in mathmatics and related academic fields, a two-wave panel survey was conducted among freshmen university students (88 females and 44 males). Before and during their first academic year, survey respondents completed questionnaires assessing their psychological androgyny (employing the Bem Sex-Role Inventory) and their causal attributions for success and failure in various areas of academic achievement. Results of cross-lagged panel correlation analyses confirmed the predicted causal relationship between sex-role identification and feelings of control over achievement in mathematics and science among female respondents. No such relationship was evidenced among male respondents or among females for nonmathematical areas of academic achievement.     

Homophobia, perceived fathering, and male intimate relationships

This study examined the relationships among homophobia, perceived fathering, and male intimacy with significant male and female best friends. A questionnaire, administered to 130 adult heterosexual males, included McDonald and Game's homophobia measure (ATHMS), eight intimacy scales, and four scales measuring subjects' recollections of their fathers' parenting styles. Correlations of ATHMS and individual intimacy scales revealed a significant relationship between homophobia and intimacy in male-male relationships. Homophobia was related to male-female intimacy on those measures which reflected subjects' perception of their female partner's sensitivity to them. Although homophobia was related to perception of the father as enforcing sex roles, none of the perceived fathering variables were directly related to intimacy with males. The findings provide evidence for a direct relationship between male homophobia and lack of intimacy in friendships between men.     

Effects of parental comments on body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance in young adults: A sociocultural model

This study examined a sociocultural model of the influence of parental comments on body shape and eating concerns among males and females. Questionnaires were completed by 338 undergraduates. Participants reported levels of perceived parental comments, internalization of media ideals, appearance comparison, body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness and bulimia. Results revealed that, regardless of gender, internalization and appearance comparison only partially mediated the relationship between parental comments and the outcome variables. The final model for females explained a larger proportion of the variability in body shape and eating concerns than in males, with positive and negative parental comments directly related to body dissatisfaction and through it to eating outcomes. In males, only negative comments were directly related to body dissatisfaction. These findings highlight the role of parental influences in sociocultural models of the development of body dissatisfaction and eating concerns, and the gender-specific patterns of sociocultural influence.     

HIV risk perceptions and first sexual intercourse among youth in Cape Town South Africa

CONTEXT: HIV prevalence is high among South African youth. Health behavior models posit that the perceived level of risk of HIV infection is associated with the level of HIV risk behavior; however, there has been limited research in Sub-Saharan Africa on factors associated with perceived risk or on the relationship between perceived risk and risk behaviors. METHODS: Longitudinal data collected in 2002 and 2005 from 3,017 black, colored and white youth in Cape Town, South Africa, were analyzed using multivariate regression to examine whether a reciprocal relationship exists between sexual experience and perceived HIV risk. Independent variables taken from the 2002 survey were used to predict dependent variables taken from the 2005 survey. RESULTS: In 2005, most youth (82% of males and 83% of females) viewed themselves as being at no or small risk of HIV infection. A reciprocal relationship in which higher perceived HIV risk was associated with a delay in sexual debut (odds ratio, 0.8) and sexual experience was associated with higher perceived risk (1.4) was found for females, but not for males. Knowing someone who had died of AIDS was associated with sexual debut and with an elevated perceived HIV risk among females (1.7 and 1.3, respectively). The associations between race and perceived risk of HIV infection varied by gender. CONCLUSIONS: HIV/AIDS education and prevention programs should consider more carefully how gender and race may intersect to influence risk perceptions and risk behaviors. In addition, possible reciprocal relationships between risk behaviors and risk perceptions should be considered in education and intervention programs.     

Sex-role identification and self-esteem in college students: Do men and women differ?

To explore the relationship between sex-role identification, achievement motivation, and self-esteem, 312 male and female college students were given the Stereotype Questionnaire, a modified form of the Mehrabian Achievement Motivation Test, and the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Group self-esteem scores of males and females did not differ significantly. While achievement motivation was a significant correlate of self-esteem for both males and females, the relationship was significantly stronger for females than for males. Furthermore, a significant direct relationship was found for both males and females between a stereotypically more masculine orientation and self-esteem. A mutually reinforcing salutary circle of processes was proposed to explain the results.     

Some aspects of the interpersonal phenomenology of heterosexual dyads with respect to sex-role stereotypes

A technique based upon recently developed Boolean calculi for interpersonal phenomenology was used to study sex-role attributions within 59 heterosexual dyads. The interpersonal and intrapersonal variables studied include perceived similarity, validation of self-concept, expectations of agreement, feelings of being understood, predictions that the partner expects agreement, understanding, accurate perception of understanding/misunderstanding, and accurate perception of expectations on agreement/disagreement. All variables were studied in relation to each member of the dyad and in relation to male and female sex-role stereotypes. Analyses of all variables are consistent with two conclusions: (1) Phenomenal disparity in a relationship is more likely to be generated around male sex-role stereotypes than around female sex-role stereotypes; (2) phenomenal disparity in a relationship is most likely to occur in connection with counter-sex-role attributions to the female. Increased uncertainty regarding counter-sex-role attributions about women and lowered validation of self-concept for women who adopt counter-sex-role attributes are shown to contribute to these effects. These conclusions are seen as a reflection of an asymmetry which seems to be consistent in the literature: Counter-sex-role choices and attitudes seem to be less discordant for males than for females in this culture. Evidence of this asymmetry is discussed.     

Instrumentalness and expressiveness: Predictors of heterosexual relationship satisfaction

The purpose of this study was to identify the extent to which stage of relationship development moderated the link between instrumentalness, expressiveness, and relationship satisfaction. Three hundred ninety three subjects indicated that they were either casually dating, seriously dating, or engaged. Results revealed that although relationship stage predicted satisfaction for both males and females, it did not interact significantly with instrumentalness and expressiveness and thus, did not serve a moderating function. Results also indicated that for males, self-perceptions of instrumentalness and expressiveness, as well as partner's perceived expressiveness predicted relationship satisfaction. For females, partner's perceived instrumentalness and expressiveness significantly predicted relationship satisfaction. Discussion centered on the different findings for males and females, and on implications for future research concerning the influence of instrumentalness and expressiveness on dyadic interaction.     

Adolescent romantic relationships as a tug of war: The interplay of power imbalance and relationship duration in adolescent dating aggression

The present study investigates the link between power imbalance within the romantic couple and psychological, relational and physical adolescent dating aggression (ADA) perpetration, considering also the role of relationship duration as an indicator of the developmental stage of the relationship. This is the first investigation into whom is perceived to have power in the relationship (the partner or the subject him/herself) by distinguishing between male and female adolescents. Participants were 805 Italian adolescents (36.1% males; 63.9% females) aged 14–20 years (M_age = 17.16 years, SD_age = 1.34), all reporting having been in a romantic relationship currently or within the past 6 months. Males perceiving a balanced relationship reported lower levels of psychological ADA perpetration, and they perpetrated more relational ADA in longer relationships where the partner is perceived to have the power. No significant findings emerged regarding physical ADA. Females perceiving themselves as having the power in the relationship reported higher levels of psychological and physical ADA perpetration. They perpetrated more relational ADA when they perceived the partner as having the power in the relationship. Also, females in longer relationships in which power was not perceived as equally shared between partners reported higher physical ADA perpetration. Finally, for both males and females, longer relationships were characterized by higher levels of ADA toward the partner. Findings highlight the importance of studying the interplay between power imbalance and relationship duration on ADA perpetration, and provide the way to understand possible functions of ADA within a romantic relationship.     

Gender differences in autonomous and social achievement orientations

This research examined gender differences in orientations toward autonomous and social achievement. Three independent samples of subjects (total N= 359 males and 574 females) completed measures of achievement orientation (including Strumpfer's [1975] Autonomous Achievement Values and Social Achievement Values scales) and relevant cognitive, affective, and behavioral variables. Correlational and factor analyses clearly identified distinct autonomous and social achievement factors for both men and women in each of the samples. Examination of the correlates of achievement orientation indicated that whereas an autonomous achievement orientation is similarly expressed in males and females, there are considerable sex differences in the expression of an orientation toward social achievement. In particular, a social achievement orientation was associated with concerns over social approval and responsiveness to social influence among males, but was generally unrelated to these factors among females. Findings are discussed in terms of several recent hypotheses concerning the effects of sex role norms on the development and expression of achievement needs in men and women.     

The Relationship Between Perceived Parenting,Negative Core Beliefs,and Dysfunctional Attitudes Among Young Adults

Previous studies have found that perceived parenting is associated with dysfunctional attitudes that predict depression. However, few studies have empirically investigated processes by which perceived parenting is associated with dysfunctional attitudes. To fill this gap, this study tested the hypothesis that perceived low parental care would be associated with negative core beliefs, which, in turn, would be associated with dysfunctional attitudes. To strictly test the hypothesis, this study controlled for current depressive symptoms that could affect the relationships between study variables. The participants were 305 college students (141 females). The results differed by sex: for female students, the hypothesis was supported; for male students, negative core beliefs were associated with dysfunctional attitudes; however, perceived low care was not associated with negative core beliefs. The findings suggest that targeting low parental care and negative core beliefs for females and negative core beliefs for males may help prevent their dysfunctional attitudes and the resultant depression.     

Reading and Empathy

The relationship between reading and empathy was explored. Controlling for GPA and gender, reading variables were hypothesized as related to empathy; the relationship was expected to differ for males and females. For the complete sample, affective components were related to GPA but not reading. Perspective taking was related to reading appreciation but not GPA. For females, reading appreciation was related to perspective taking and empathic concern. For males, GPA and non-fiction reading were positively related, but both were negatively related to empathic concern. Results suggest reading may promote both academic achievement and social development. Findings and social implications are discussed.     

Parent-child sexual discussion: perceived communicator style and subsequent behavior

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between perceived parental sexual communicator style and adolescent sexual behavior and information accuracy. Two hundred thirty-four college students provided data on their perceptions of parental sexual communicator style as well as self-reports of sexual behavior and knowledge across three time frames (junior high school, high school, and college). Significant relationships were found between perceived parental sexual communicator styles and sexual activity, contraceptive use, and sexual knowledge accuracy. In addition, significant differences were found between males and females on their sexual knowledge accuracy (females reported a higher level of sexual knowledge than did males). The findings are discussed, and recommendations for future research in the area of parent-adolescent sexual communication are offered.     

Perspectives on self and other: Male-female differences in perceptions of communication behavior

Two studies were conducted to examine male-female differences in perceptions of subjects' own and their best-liked others' communication behavior. The results of the first study indicated that males and females hold relatively stereotypical views of their own communication behavior. Males perceived themselves as more controlling and detached, while females saw themselves as more nurturant and more dependent. The results from the second study indicated that the discriminating dimensions for the same-sex friendships of both males and females were attention-seeking and self-dramatizing communication behaviors. In an opposite-sex relationship, however, the discriminating communication behaviors for males and females were nurturance and dependency. The implications of these findings are discussed.Both authors would like to thank Edmund Kaminski, currently a doctoral candidate at Michigan State University, for his valuable assistance on this project.     

Gender differences in the relationship of moderator variables to stress and symptoms

Abstract

This study focused on gender differences in the relationship of four moderator variables (hostility, social support, optimism, and Type A behavior) to perceptions of symptoms and stress based on a sample of 120 female and 79 male undergraduates. Results confirmed significant gender differences in hostility, Type A behavior, and social support but not in optimism. Multiple regression analyses exposed distinct gender differences. For females, social support accounted for 21% and hostility 5% of the total variance in perceived stress. For males, only hostility accounted for any significant variance (10%). Hostility contributed 21% and social support contributed 13% to the total variance in the number of symptoms for females. For males, optimism contributed 14% and hostility 5%. Results indicate that social support is a potent variable for females in their perception of both stress and symptoms but essentially unrelated for males. Hostility, however, relates to perceptions of stress and symptoms for both sexes.