Expectations of reducing fat intake: The role of perceived need within the theory of planned behaviour

Abstract

Dietary fat intake has been implicated in the causation of major diseases including coronary heart disease and cancer. Hence, current recommendatioris to improve health emphasise the reduction of fat intake (COMA, 1991). The present study investigated the effect of perceived need to reduce fat intake and past behaviour on peoples' expectations of reducing fat intake, using the framework of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985; 1991). The effects of estimated fat intake and body weight on perceived need to reduce were also investigated. One hundred and fifty-two adults completed a four-day weighed dietary record and completed a questionnaire based on the TPB. Perceived need to reduce fat intake, cognitive and affective components of attitude and past behaviour wm found to be significant predictors of expectation of reducing fat intake. Perceived body weight and estimated fat intake were significant predictors of perceived need to reduce fat intake. The implications of these findings for health promotion policy are discussed.     

Evidence that implementation intentions reduce dietary fat intake: a randomized trial.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of an intervention based on the concept of implementation intentions for reducing dietary fat intake. Participants (n=264) completed questionnaires on their motivation to eat a low-fat diet before being randomized to either an experimental condition, which required them to form an implementation intention, or a control condition. Results showed that, after 1 month, fat intake, saturated fat intake, and the proportion of energy derived from fat decreased significantly in the experimental group but not in the control group. This difference could not be explained by differences in motivation between the 2 groups. The findings are discussed in relation to the use of implementation intentions instead of tailored interventions to change behavior in general populations.     

Dietary variety, energy regulation, and obesity

Increased variety in the food supply may contribute to the development and maintenance of obesity. Thirty-nine studies examining dietary variety, energy intake, and body composition are reviewed. Animal and human studies show that food consumption increases when there is more variety in a meal or diet and that greater dietary variety is associated with increased body weight and fat. A hypothesized mechanism for these findings is sensory-specific satiety, a phenomenon demonstrating greater reductions in hedonic ratings or intake of foods consumed compared with foods not consumed. Nineteen studies documenting change in preference, intake, and hedonic ratings of food after a food has been eaten to satiation in animals and humans are reviewed, and the theory of sensory-specific satiety is examined. The review concludes with the relevance of oral habituation theory as a unifying construct for the effects of variety and sensory-specific satiety, clinical implications of dietary variety and sensory-specific satiety on energy regulation, and suggestions for future research.     

A cholesterol-lowering diet does not produce adverse psychological effects in children: three-year results from the dietary intervention study in children.

The Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC), a 2-arm, multicenter intervention study, examined the efficacy and safety of a diet lower in total fat, saturated fatty acids, and cholesterol than the typical American child's diet. A total of 663 8- to 10-year-old children with elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were randomly assigned to either an intervention or a usual-care group. Intervention included group and individual counseling sessions to assist participants in adopting a dietary pattern containing 28% or less of calories from total fat (<8% as saturated fat, up to 9% as polyunsaturated fat, and 11% as monounsaturated fat) and dietary cholesterol intake of less than 75 mg/1,000 kcal. The dietary intervention reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, and 3-year results showed no adverse effects for children in the intervention group in terms of academic functioning, psychological symptoms, or family functioning.     

Covert self-reinforcers, fear of consequences, and health behavior

A sample of 125 U.S. college students reported how frequently they exercised vigorously; wore seat belts in automobiles; and avoided consumption of red meat and foods high in dietary cholesterol, saturated fat, and salt. They also reported their fears of long-term negative effects from the unhealthful alternatives and both the frequencies and intensities of 6 self-administered covert consequences: 3 positive for healthful behaviors and 3 negative for the unhealthful alternatives. Diet-related health behaviors were best predicated by a single scale composed of all 12 covert-consequence items. Factor analyses suggested the use of 2 scales for exercise and use of seat belts: 1 rating positive consequences and the other rating negative consequences. For both behaviors, only the positive-item scale predicted in multiple regression. Fear was correlated with all health behaviors except exercise, but it contributed independently only to red-meat avoidance.     

A Cognitive-Behavioral Family-Based Protocol for the Primary Presentations of Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID): Case Examples and Clinical Research Findings

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) is a feeding and eating disorder with evidence for distinct but overlapping presentations characterized by avoidance of eating or narrow dietary range related to poor appetite, selective eating, or fear of aversive consequences of eating. The current paper describes a flexible, cognitive-behavioral, family-oriented treatment approach that has been applied to each of these ARFID presentations within a larger partial hospitalization program (PHP) for eating disorders. We provide composite case examples for the presentations and retrospective outcome data on a sample of 81 patients treated with the protocol. Overall, patients with ARFID exhibited significant increases in body weight and the number of foods accepted, and significant decreases on measures assessing food fears, oral control behavior, anxiety, and depression. At baseline, patients with co-occurring poor appetite and selective eating exhibited significantly lower body weight than those with fear of aversive consequences, while the latter group of patients were eating significantly fewer foods and feared a larger number of foods according to parent report. Patients with the fear of aversive consequences presentation also experienced greater increases in the number of foods they were willing to eat and greater decreases in the number of foods they feared over the course of treatment relative to the other two groups. Our findings provide preliminary support for the effectiveness of our family-centered, cognitive-behavioral PHP for children and adolescents with ARFID. Future studies with more sophisticated methods, including randomized controlled designs and ARFID-specific measures, are recommended to help establish evidence-based psychosocial interventions for this clinical population.     

Correlates of Children's Eating Attitude Test scores among primary school children

A total of 107 Malay primary school girls (8-9 yr. old) completed a set of measurements on eating behavior (ChEAT, food neophobia scales, and dieting experience), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, body shape satisfaction, dietary intake, weight, and height. About 38% of the girls scored 20 and more on the ChEAT, and 46% of them reported dieting by reducing sugar and sweets (73%), skipping meals (67%), reducing fat foods (60%) and snacks (53%) as the most frequent methods practiced. In general, those girls with higher ChEAT scores tended to have lower self-esteem (r=.39), indicating they were more unwilling to try new foods (food neophobic) (r=.29), chose a smaller figure for desired body size (r=-.25), and were more dissatisfied with their body size (r=.31).     

Taiwanese adolescents' perceptions and attitudes regarding the internet: exploring gender differences

The purpose of this study was to explore adolescents' perceptions and attitudes regarding the Internet, by gender. Data were collected from 636 high school students in Taiwan. It was found that male adolescents perceived the Internet more as a "toy," while female adolescents perceived the Internet more as a "technology," "tool" or "tour." Results indicated that females held more pragmatic views of the Internet, whereas males believed they could obtain more enjoyment from the Internet. In addition, males expressed significantly more positive attitudes than did females on two aspects of the Internet: usefulness and perceived control. However, no significant gender differences were found in terms of the affection and behavior aspects of using the Internet. More importantly, females tended to show higher Internet self-efficacy than did males. It is suggested that gender differences regarding the Internet might be narrowing because female adolescents are acquiring more experience with it.     

Healthy Eating Self‐Schema and Nutrition Behavior1

The nutrition behavior of female college students who differed in healthy eater self‐schema status was investigated. Forty‐nine female students enrolled in a nutrition class (27 schematics, 22 nonschematics) provided 4‐day food diaries. Analyses revealed that students who saw themselves as healthy eaters consumed more fiber and less total fat than did those without such a self‐schema. In addition, higher percentages of healthy eater schematics met the dietary guidelines for fiber, total fat, and dietary cholesterol. No group differences were found for either saturated fat or sugar intake.     

Family Consumption of Low Fat Foods: Stated Preference Versus Actual Consumption1

Food preferences for low fat, low cholesterol foods were obtained directly from 30 mother and child pairs. The food preferences of mothers and children were not related and both were not accurate in estimating each other's food likes. When food preferences of mother and child were correlated with stated frequency of consumption, virtually no relationships emerged. The best predictor of what was being served to the entire family was what the father (husband) liked to eat. These results suggest that dietary interventions in families should include the fathers.     

Gender differences in eating behavior and body weight regulation

Gender differences in food intake and selection first appear in adolescence. Men consume more calories than women, and the sexes have different eating styles, which indicate that women have been socialized to eat in a more feminine manner. Women experience more food-related conflict than men do, in that they like fattening foods but perceive that they should not eat them. Pressures to be thin are present in early adolescence, as noted by dieting behavior starting in very young girls. Women experience more dissatisfaction with their body weight and shape than men do. Sociocultural and psychological factors may be important in the etiology of eating disorders, which are much more prevalent in females than in males. Thus, further studies of gender differences in eating behavior will be important for understanding the etiology of eating and body-weight disorders and for designing gender-appropriate treatments.     

Nutritional habits and motivations to eat after a palatable pre-load

A representative sample of college students was surveyed about nutritional habits and motivations to eat. Females were more likely to report dieting, being overweight, reading nutritional labels, eating healthy meals, as well as hungering for and consuming lower fat foods compared to males. Males reported a greater hunger for and consumption of candy bars compared to females. Thus, females may not be as ambivalent about eating sweet or higher fat foods as previously suggested. The experimental manipulation involved exposing subjects to either candy before the survey, candy with the survey, or just the survey with no candy exposure. Females exposed to the candy preload indicated an increased hunger for fruits and vegetables compared to female controls. Portions of this research have been presented at the 1999 annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association in Providence, RI. The authors would like to thank Mr. Steve Lukasik and Ms. Christie Piedmont for their assistance on this project.     

Nutritional habits and motivations to eat after a palatable pre-load

A representative sample of college students was surveyed about nutritional habits and motivations to eat. Females were more likely to report dieting, being overweight, reading nutritional labels, eating healthy meals, as well as hungering for and consuming lower fat foods compared to males. Males reported a greater hunger for and consumption of candy bars compared to females. Thus, females may not be as ambivalent about eating sweet or higher fat foods as previously suggested. The experimental manipulation involved exposing subjects to either candy before the survey, candy with the survey, or just the survey with no candy exposure. Females exposed to the candy preload indicated an increased hunger for fruits and vegetables compared to female controls. Portions of this research have been presented at the 1999 annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association in Providence, RI. The authors would like to thank Mr. Steve Lukasik and Ms. Christie Piedmont for their assistance on this project.     

Gender differences in perceptions of the healthiness of foods

Abstract

Our perceptions of the healthiness of foods are thought to influence what we decide to eat. Reportedly, women (as compared to men) eat more nutritious foods and are more likely to consider health issues when deciding what to eat However, until now, few studies have investigated possible gender differences in perceptions of the healthiness of foods. In the present study, men and women answered questions pertaining to nutritional habits, then rated a variety of foods according to their healthfulness. Results indicated that women, compared to men, tended to emphasize fat content over nutrient levels when deciding what foods are healthy. If perceptions of food health influence consumption, it is likely that females, as compared to males, would be more likely to suffer from malnutrition.     

Drug-Intake Methods and Social Identity: The Use of Marijuana in Blunts Among Southeast Asian Adolescents and Emerging Adults

This article examines why Southeast Asian American adolescents and emerging adults in two urban settings prefer to use "blunts," or hollowed-out cigars filled with marijuana, over other methods of drug intake. Rationales for preferring blunts were both instrumental and social. Blunts allowed users to more easily share marijuana, the preferred drug among their peers, and protected against potential adverse effects associated with the "high." Blunts also allowed users to identify with the dominant style of drug use and differentiate themselves from users of stigmatized drugs such as crack cocaine and methamphetamine. This article highlights the importance of drug-intake methods in the formation and performance of drug-using behaviors among adolescents, emerging adults, and members of ethnic minority subgroups.     

Planning and self-efficacy interventions encouraging replacing energy-dense foods intake with fruit and vegetable: A longitudinal experimental study

Objective: This longitudinal experimental study compared effects of self-efficacy, planning and education-based conditions, encouraging adolescents to eat fruit and vegetable in place of energy-dense foods.

Design: Data were collected among 506 adolescents (13–18 years old) who were randomly assigned to control (n = 181), planning (n = 153) or self-efficacy (n = 172) conditions. Measurements were taken at baseline (T1), at a 2-month follow-up (T2), and at a 14-month follow-up (T3). Interventions/control group procedures were delivered at T1 and T2.

Outcome measures: Self-reports of fruit and vegetable intake (FVI) and energy-dense foods intake were collected at three times. Cognitive mediators (self-efficacy and planning) were assessed at T1 and T2. Body weight and height were objectively measured at T1 and T3.

Results and conclusions: Similar significant increases of FVI were found for planning and self-efficacy interventions (T3). The planning intervention did not influence energy-dense food intake (T3), but the self-efficacy intervention tended to result in stabilising intake (compared to an increase found in the control group). There were no effects on body weight. Similar patterns were found for the total sample and for a subsample of adolescents with overweight/obesity. The effects of interventions on FVI were mediated by respective cognitions.     

Relationship between dietary restraint, energy intake, physical activity, and body weight: a prospective analysis.

Dietary, activity, and body weight differences in high- and low-restrained eaters and the independent impact of dietary restraint on body weight change were evaluated in 287 adults (141 men, 146 women) followed over a 1-year period. Analyses of measures of energy intake, physical activity, and dietary restraint indicated that high-restrained eaters did not differ in physical activity compared to low-restrained eaters at baseline but were ingesting significantly fewer kcal/lb and a higher percentage of the diet from fat. Body mass was significantly greater in both high-restrained men and high-restrained women than in their low-restrained counterparts. Regression modeling procedures revealed that weight and body mass at baseline were related to weight gain in men. In contrast, weight gain in women was predicted by baseline weight and higher restraint scores. These results indicate that dietary restraint is associated with weight gain in women but not in men.     

Areas of concern and sources of advice for Israeli adolescents.

This study explored the concerns of Israeli adolescents, who grow up in a socially, politically, and economically highly stressed environment. Ninth- and eleventh-grade students (N = 1,645) completed a questionnaire in which they indicated three important problems they had recently experienced. Content analysis identified six major categories of concerns (listed in descending order of occurrence): studies and career, social "I," personal "I," existential issues, army or national service, and health and drugs. Younger adolescents were found to be more concerned with problems involving studies and career and with issues pertaining to the social "I"; older adolescents were more concerned with existential issues and army or national service. Boys were more concerned with existential issues, army or national service, studies and career, and the social "I." Girls were more concerned with issues pertaining to the personal "I." Three major sources of advice were identified: friends, parents, and brothers/sisters.     

Testing the effects of an expectancy-based intervention among adolescents: Can placebos be used to enhance physical health?

It has been suggested that the well-known health benefits associated with exercise can be explained by a placebo effect, and that greater effort should be given to convince people that their current behaviors have desirable health consequences. The overall purpose of this study was to test the efficacy of this "mind-set matters" hypothesis through the use of an expectancy-based intervention with adolescents. The study involved a four week randomized controlled trial with 348 Grade 9 adolescents (M (age)?=?14.07 yrs, SD?=?0.30), from four high schools, taking part in either a placebo-intervention condition (n?=?188) or a control condition (n?=?160). Participants in the placebo-intervention condition were informed that what they are already doing in school physical education lessons fulfills current recommendations for an active lifestyle. Participants in the control condition were not given this information. Four weeks after the intervention, adolescents in the placebo-intervention condition did not demonstrate significant changes in physiological health-related measures (diet, weight, body mass index, percentage body fat, heart rate, mean arterial pressure). The findings question the external validity of the "mind-set matters" hypothesis with adolescents, and suggest that simply encouraging adolescents to believe that they are healthy may not enable them to respond with improved indicators of physical health.     

Role of fatty acid oxidation in control of meal pattern

To characterize the role of fatty acid oxidation in the control of food intake, we investigated the effect of 2-mercaptoacetate, which inhibits fatty acid oxidation, on meal patterns and cumulative food intake in rats. Rats were fed either a medium fat (MF, 18% fat) or a low fat (LF, 3.3% fat) diet. Mercaptoacetate (400 mumole/kg body wt), intraperitoneally injected in the middle of the bright or at the onset of the dark phase of the diurnal lighting cycle, increased cumulative food intake in MF rats by shortening the latency to eat after injection and the duration of the subsequent intermeal interval (IMI) without affecting the size of the first meal. Mercaptoacetate, injected in the middle of the bright phase, reduced the latency to eat but did not affect the duration of the subsequent IMI or cumulative food intake in LF rats. A higher dose of mercaptoacetate (600 mumole/kg body wt), initially increased and later decreased cumulative food intake in MF rats. The initial increase in food intake was due to shorter IMIs; the subsequent decrease in food intake was due to smaller meals after mercaptoacetate injection than after control injection. The results indicate that a drop in fatty acid oxidation caused by mercaptoacetate triggers a meal. This implicates fatty acid oxidation in the maintenance of postprandial satiety.