内隐社会认知研究发展述评

20世纪末期兴起的内隐社会认知研究,从揭示社会认知无意识成分的角度。为探究社会心理的实质提供了新思路。该文就内隐社会认知的理论发展及其研究方法沿革进行综述,并对国内该领域研究的社会意义及应用价值做一述评。     

IAT测验对攻击性内隐社会认知的应用研究

采用内隐联想测验（IAT）对攻击性内隐社会认知进行了研究。结果显示：1．IAT测验中,攻击性信息和积极性词汇之间的平均反应时小于其和消极性词汇之间的平均反应时,且差异显著;2．攻击性IAT测验与攻击性自陈式量表所测结果之间无显著性相关;3．攻击性IAT测验中,男女被试之间无显著性差异。研究表明IAT测验可以应用于攻击性内隐社会认知的研究。     

Social aggression and power relations among preschool children

Social agonism and dominance relations were assessed in two preschool groups. An average of 30 hours of observational data was obtained for each group during free-play over a six-week period. A Social Agonism Inventory describing specific initiation and response behaviors during episodes of social conflict was used to code agonistic activity. Dyadic interactions were examined to determine whether the resolution of agonistic interactions conformed to a linear model of social dominance. Although there were group differences in the relative frequency of different forms of conflict, systematic comparison of agonistic wins and losses re vealed similarly rigid and linear dominance structures at both preschools. The relation of aggression and dominance was empirically examined by comparing the initiation and receipt of agonism by high vs low dominance status children. Higher dominance status children engaged in more agonistic interactions, but a majority of these interactions were directed toward other high-ranking group members.     

Social-Cognitive and Behavioral Correlates of Aggression and Victimization in Boys' Play Groups

A contrived play group procedure was utilized to examine the behavioral and social-cognitive correlates of reactive aggression, proactive aggression, and victimization via peers. Eleven play groups, each of which consisted of six familiar African-American 8-year-old boys, met for 45-min sessions on five consecutive days. Social-cognitive interviews were conducted following the second and fourth sessions. Play group interactions were videotaped and examined by trained observers. High rates of proactive aggression were associated with positive outcome expectancies for aggression/assertion, frequent displays of assertive social behavior, and low rates of submissive behavior. Reactive aggression was associated with hostile attributional tendencies and frequent victimization by peers. Victimization was associated with submissive behavior, hostile attributional bias, reactive aggression, and negative outcome expectations for aggression/assertion. These results demonstrate that there is a theoretically coherent and empirically distinct set of correlates associated with each of the examined aggression subtypes, and with victimization by peers.     

Action,the foundation for cognitive development

It is argued that action constitutes the foundation for cognitive development. Action is a principal component of all aspects of cognitive development including social understanding. It reflects the motives of the child, the problems to be solved, the goals to be attained, and the constraints and possibilities of the child’s body and sensory‐motor system. Actions are directed into the future and their control is based on knowledge of what is going to happen next. The child’s sensory‐motor system is especially designed to facilitate the extraction of this knowledge. In addition, the infant is endowed with motives that ensure that these innate predispositions are transformed into a system of knowledge for guiding actions. By acting on the world, infants develop their cognition.     

Empathy as a cognitive inhibitor of interpersonal aggression

The studies presented in this paper examined empathy, especially perspective taking, as a potential inhibitor of interpersonal aggression. The theoretical rationale for these investigations derived from Zillmann's [(1988): Aggressive Behavior 14: 51–64] cognitive excitation model. Study 1 revealed that dispositional empathy correlates negatively with self-reported aggression and with conflict responses that reflect little concern for the needs of the other party. Empathy also was positively related to constructive responses to interpersonal conflict (i. e., those that do involve concern for the needs of the other party). In Study 2, perspective taking was manipulated with instructions to subjects prior to participation in a reaction-time task designed to measure aggression. When threat was relatively low, subjects who were instructed to take the perspective of the target responded less aggressively than did those who had been instructed to focus on the task. Study 3 examined the effect of dispositional perspective taking on verbal aggression. Threat was manipulated in terms of the combination of provocation and gender of the interactants. As predicted, perspective taking related to aggression inhibition under conditions of moderate threat–for males under low provocation and females under high provocation. These effects were predicted and explained in the context of the cognitive-excitation model. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Evaluating the heat‐aggression hypothesis: The role of temporal and social factors in predicting baseball related aggression

We examined the role that season progression and social threats play in the heat‐aggression hypothesis within Major League Baseball put forward by Reifman, Larrick, and Fein (1991). Box score data from 38,870 Major League Baseball games between the years of 2000 and 2015 was used to test the heat‐aggression relationship, while accounting for temporal and social factors that may be simultaneously exerting influence on player behavior. Controlling for a number of other variables, we observed that the effect of temperature on aggressive behavior is partially contingent on the point of the season in which the game took place. Aggressive behavior was also more likely to occur when teams played divisional (compared to league and inter‐league) rivals, however this relationship was contingent on season progression. We provide potential boundary conditions relating to the heat‐aggression relationship, indicating this may not be a ubiquitous phenomenon.

     

Social overstimulation reduces subsequent aggression in Betta splendens

This paper examines the waning of intense aggressive behaviors in Siamese fighting fish subjected to continuous visual social stimulation. Damaging biting during subsequent fighting was dramatically reduced in fish which had been surrounded for several weeks by conspecifics, even though the overstimulated fish performed only opercular and fin displays to the fish surrounding them, not biting. The latency to opercular display was diminished, but the rate once opercular display began was not significantly different. In the 18 encounters observed, a socially overstimulated fish never dominated a control fish. This result suggests a visually mediated mechanism, which reduces biting tendency when there is prolonged, inescapable visual exposure to mildly aggression-releasing stimuli similar to those which trigger biting in live encounters. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

内隐社会认知视野中的攻击性

本文从内隐社会认知的角度对人类的攻击性进行了探讨,认为人类的攻击性更具内隐性,对人们的影响是以一种自动化的方式进行的,而且认为欲求对攻击性进行量化研究最佳方式是间接测量。本文还对研究攻击性的内隐社会认知方法进行了简单介绍,并指出了从内隐社会认知角度研究攻击性的重要意义。     

Predatory aggression in lines of wild mice selected for interfemale aggression

Mice descending from lines previously selected for high and low levels of interfemale aggression and from a nonselected control line were exposed to live crickets on two consecutive test days. Latencies both to attack and to eat the cricket were recorded. No line or sex differences in attacking were found, although latency to attack decreased over test days. Control line mice were more likely to engage in the eating of the cricket than either the high or low selected lines, suggesting that the selection procedure may have dissociated attacking and eating components of predatory behavior.     

Cognitive influences on cross-language speech perception in infancy

Previous research has shown that young infants can discriminate both native and nonnative phonetic contrasts with ease. By 10 to 12 months of age, however, infants—like adults—typically have difficulty discriminating consonant contrasts that are not used to distinguish meaning in their native language. Although the timing of this change in speech perception has been firmly established, little is currently known about the processes or mechanisms involved in this selective and adaptive reorganization in nonnative phonetic discrimination. This study was designed to determine if there is a relation between age-related changes in speech perception performance and other developing cognitive abilities. A total of 40 8- to 10-month-old infants were tested on a nonnative consonant discrimination task and then on two additional tasks (a visual categorization task and an object search task) in an attempt to determine whether changes in nonnative consonant perception coincide with changes in these other areas of cognitive/perceptual functioning. The results indicate that changes in task performance occur in synchrony across all three tasks, and that this synchrony is not explained by simple age effects. These findings suggest that domain-general cognitive/perceptual competencies may influence developmental changes in speech perception by the end of the 1st year of life.     

Social support and verbal interaction are differentially associated with cognitive function in midlife and older age

Social engagement is associated with healthy aging and preserved cognition. Two dimensions of engagement, verbal interactions and perceived support, likely impact cognition via distinct mechanistic pathways. We explored the cognitive benefit of each construct among enrollees (N = 1,052, mean age = 60.2 years) in the Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer’s Prevention study, who provide neuropsychological and sociobehavioral data at two-year intervals. Outcomes included six cognitive factor scores representing key domains of executive function and memory. Key predictors included self-reported perceived social support and weekly verbal interaction. Results indicated that after adjusting for lifestyle covariates, social support was positively associated with Speed and Flexibility and that verbal interactions were associated with Verbal Learning and Memory. These findings suggest that support, which may buffer stress, and verbal interaction, an accessible, aging-friendly form of environmental enrichment, are uniquely beneficial. Both are integral in the design of clinical and community interventions and programs that promote successful aging.     

Predicting dating behavior from aggression and self‐perceived social status in adolescence

We investigated the longitudinal associations between self‐reported aggression, self‐perceived social status, and dating in adolescence using an intrasexual competition theoretical framework. Participants consisted of 536 students in Grade 9 (age 15), recruited from a community sample, who were assessed on a yearly basis until they were in Grade 11 (age 17). Adolescents self‐reported their use of direct and indirect aggression, social status, and number of dating partners. A cross‐lagged panel model that controlled for within‐time covariance and across‐time stability while examining cross‐lagged pathways was used to analyze the data. The findings revealed that direct aggression did not predict dating behavior and was negatively associated with self‐perceived social status in Grade 10. Self‐perceived social status in Grade 9 was positively associated with greater use of indirect aggression in Grade 10. Regarding dating, in Grade 9, self‐perceived social status positively predicted more dating partners the following year, while in Grade 10, it was higher levels of indirect aggression that predicted greater dating activity the following year. Overall, there were no significant sex differences in the model. The study supports the utility of evolutionary psychological theory in explaining peer aggression, and suggests that although social status can increase dating opportunities, as adolescents mature, indirect aggression becomes the most successful and strategic means of competing intrasexually and gaining mating advantages.

     

家庭处境不利儿童的社会性发展研究述评

本文就家庭视角评述国外关于处境不利儿童的社会性发展有关研究。有关文献表明,处境不利儿童的自我概念有明显的外在化特征,区分性低,较少指向未来;他们存在社会信息加工中的译码困难和归因偏向,其信息加工技能和认知控制技能都存在一定的问题,社会性情绪发展也存在诸多困难;他们的亲子依恋往往是不安全甚至矛盾类型;他们往往难以被同伴所接纳,在交往中更多地表现出适应不良性行为,其友谊质量也比较差,但自我效能、自我调节以及良好的群体特征是改善其同伴交往的重要因素;家庭的各种不利因素还会对其社会交活动中的活动能力、活动数量、活动水平和活动技能带来影响,在他们身上也更容易出现攻击、退缩以及各种过错行为和违法犯罪行为。当前,有关这些儿童的神经生理与心理学结合的研究也正在进行之中。     

Expectations and prescriptions for responding to peer aggression: The adolescent offenders' perspective

The purpose of the current research was to investigate adolescent offenders' perspectives about responses to interpersonal aggressive encounters. Specifically, participants' perspectives were assessed regarding the role of a bystander when either a friend or an acquaintance of the bystander was the victim of an aggressive act. Two aggressive acts were presented. First, the bystander witnessed an acquaintance stealing from the victim. Second, the bystander witnessed an acquaintance hitting the victim. Participants were asked to indicate (a) if the bystander would do anything (bystander expected behavior), (b) what the bystander would do (expected behavioral action), (c) if the action would be the right thing to do (evaluation of bystander expected behavioral action), and (d) what the bystander should do in response to the violation (prescribed bystander behavioral action). Results indicate that the adolescent offenders' perspectives varied as a function of offender status, type of aggressive act, as well as relationship of the victim to the bystander. Aggr. Behav. 23:149–160, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The relation of prosocial behavior to the development of aggression and psychopathology

The development of prosocial behavior is traced from middle childhood to adulthood in a 22-year longitudinal study of 800 children first seen at age 8 and is compared to the development of aggression over the same period. Prosocial behavior and aggression seem to represent opposite ends of a single dimension of behavior since they are consistently negatively related to each other and relate in opposite ways to correlated variables both synchronously and over time. Both are stable forms of behavior with good predictability over the time span studied and both are related to the quality of the parent-child relationship. The most important deterrent to the development of antisocial behavior and the encouragement of prosocial behavior is probably a close identification between the child and his/her parents.     

Emotion and aggression in the psychopathic personality

This paper presents an integrative conceptual framework for understanding relationships between psychopathy and aggression, and reviews the extant relevant literature in relation to this framework. Issues pertaining to conceptualization and subtyping of aggression are reviewed with reference to contemporary emotion theory, and recent research on the emotional and temperamental underpinnings of criminal psychopathy is described. It is argued that different forms of aggression may be related to disparate facets of psychopathy, and that these relationships may be mediated by common dispositional factors. Methodological limitations of existing studies are identified, and suggestions for future research are offered.     

Emotion and aggression in the psychopathic personality

This paper presents an integrative conceptual framework for understanding relationships between psychopathy and aggression, and reviews the extant relevant literature in relation to this framework. Issues pertaining to conceptualization and subtyping of aggression are reviewed with reference to contemporary emotion theory, and recent research on the emotional and temperamental underpinnings of criminal psychopathy is described. It is argued that different forms of aggression may be related to disparate facets of psychopathy, and that these relationships may be mediated by common dispositional factors. Methodological limitations of existing studies are identified, and suggestions for future research are offered.