The Theory of Epistemic Justification and the Theory of Knowledge: A Divorce

Richard Foley has suggested that the search for a good theory of epistemic justification and the analysis of knowledge should be conceived of as two distinct projects. However, he has not offered much support for this claim, beyond highlighting certain salutary consequences it might have. In this paper, I offer some further support for Foley’s claim by offering an argument and a way to conceive the claim in a way that makes it as plausible as its denial, and thus levelling the playing field. The burden of proof then lies with those who seek to deny Foley’s radical suggestion.     

制度正当化理论述评

制度正当化是指个体将现存社会安排合法化的心理过程。制度正当化的理论基础包括谬误意识、公正世界信念理论和认知失调理论。制度正当化理论能够解释人们为什么以及怎样在认知和意识形态上维护和支持现状, 以及由此产生的一些积极和消极后果。制度正当化受到个体因素和情境因素的影响。未来研究应进一步明确制度正当化中“制度”的涵义, 加强制度正当化理论的应用性研究, 以便更好地解释社会转变如何产生。     

Reciprocal Justification in Science and Moral Theory

In this paper, I analyze the particular conception of reciprocal justification proposed by Nelson Goodman and incorporated by John Rawls into what he called reflective equilibrium. I propose a way of avoiding the twin dangers which threaten to push this idea to either of two extremes: the reliance on epistemically privileged observation reports (or moral judgments in Rawls version), which tends to disrupt the balance struck between the two sides of the equilibrium and to re-establish a foundationalism; and the denial of any privileged status to such reports (or judgments), which makes the equilibrium into a theoretical monolith.     

Children''s Representational Theory of Language:The Problem of Opaque Contexts

Around four years of age, children recognize that action is less a consequence of the way the world is than the way it is represented by the actor. This understanding is characterized as a “theory of mind.” This study examines the possibility of the development of a parallel theory of language; specifically, the understanding that, in opaque contexts, terms do not simply map on to the referent of the expression, but rather indicate how that object is to be represented. 120 3- to 7-year-olds were tested on their theory of mind (using false belief tasks) and sensitivity to opaque contexts. Children who passed false belief tasks performed more successfully on the opacity measure than those who did not, even when age was partialled out (r (117) = .2453, p < .01). It is concluded that children come to realize that language does not refer to the world directly, but rather via one's representation of it. The results are consistent with the view that both abilities are manifestations of a more general understanding of representation, and that children's theories of mind and language follow similar developmental paths.     

Representational Pseudoneglect: A Review

Pseudoneglect, the tendency to be biased towards the left-hand side of space, is a robust and consistent behavioural observation best demonstrated on the task of visuospatial line bisection, where participants are asked to centrally bisect visually presented horizontal lines at the perceived centre. A number of studies have revealed that a representational form of pseudoneglect exists, occurring when participants are asked to either mentally represent a stimulus or explore a stimulus using touch in the complete absence of direct visuospatial processing. Despite the growing number of studies that have demonstrated representational pseudoneglect there exists no current and comprehensive review of these findings and no discussion of a theoretical framework into which these findings may fall. An important gap in the current representational pseudoneglect literature is a discussion of the developmental trajectory of the bias. The focus of the current review is to outline studies that have observed representational pseudoneglect in healthy participants, consider a theoretical framework for these observations, and address the impact of lifespan factors such as cognitive ageing on the phenomenon.     

Content Externalism and the Internalism/Externalism Debate in Justification Theory

While recent debates over content externalism have been mainly concerned with whether it undermines the traditional thesis of privileged self-knowledge, little attention has been paid to what bearing content externalism has on such important controversies as the internalism/externalism debate in epistemology. With a few exceptions, the question has either been treated as a side issue in discussions concerning the implications of content externalism, or has been dealt with in a cursory way in debates over the internalism/externalism distinction in justification theory. In this paper, I begin by considering some of the arguments that have sought to address the question, focusing mainly on Boghossian's pioneering attempt in bringing the issue to the fore.¹ It will be argued that Boghossian's attempt to exploit the alleged non-inferentiality of self-knowledge to show that content externalism and justification internalism are incompatible fails.
In the course of this examination, I consider and reject as inadequate some recent responses to Boghossian's argument (due to James Chase²). I then turn to evaluating Chase's own proposed argument to show how content externalism can be brought to bear on the internalism/externalism debate in epistemology, and find it wanting. Finally, having discussed BonJour's terse remarks in this connection,³ I set out to present, what I take to be, the strongest argument for the incompatibility of content externalism and justification internalism while highlighting the controversial character of one of its main premises. Let us, however, begin by drawing the contours of the debate.     

Wellness: A Review of Theory and Measurement for Counselors

Wellness is considered the paradigm of counseling and development (J. E. Myers, 1991, 1992). However, researchers have failed to agree on a definition or on the dimensional structure of wellness. Furthermore, existing quantitative wellness instruments are inadequate for capturing the complexity of wellness. The author reviews wellness theory and proposes an integrated definition of the construct. Existing wellness assessment instruments are explored along with advancements in research, theory, and measurement. Finally, implications for counseling and assessment are addressed.     

A defense of Empirical Justification

Conclusion Overall, then, I conclude that Possin and Timmons have not shown the need for an alternative to the foundationalism of Empirical Justification.     

阿尔斯顿的混合主义确证理论评析

引言 1963年美国年轻的哲学教授葛梯尔在<分析>杂志上发表了<确证的真信念是不是知识>一文,这篇不足三页的小文章引发了当代英美哲学界对确证本质的四十余年的争论.[1]20世纪80年代以来,围绕着"确证何以可能"的问题逐渐形成了内在主义与外在主义两大主流学派,两者之争占据了当代英美知识论研究的中心舞台.[2]     

Philosophy for Resilience: A Meaningful Intervention for Medical Students

Journal of Academic Ethics - Philosophy and ethics in medicine is an interesting and often fascinating topic of enquiry, however uptake amongst medical students is highly variable and&nbsp;it...     

Computational Theory and Cognition in Representational Momentum and Related Types of Displacement: A reply to Kerzel

Kerzel’s (2006) commentary on Hubbard’s (2005) re-view of the literature on representational momentum and related types of displacement highlights differences of interpretation between Hubbard and Kerzel, but also contains mischaracterizations of Hubbard’s position. In this reply to Kerzel, these differences and mischaracterizations are addressed. Issues are briefly considered that involve the following: whether displacement involves multiple processes; the Marr (1982) framework; the relationship of displacement to internalized physics, goodness of perceived motion, apparent motion, and oculomotor overshoot; generalization from flashed objects to moving objects; necessary and sufficient criteria for displacement; and whether the existence of auditory representational momentum provides evidence for a supramodal account of displacement.     

A Decade of System Justification Theory: Accumulated Evidence of Conscious and Unconscious Bolstering of the Status Quo

Most theories in social and political psychology stress self-interest, intergroup conflict, ethnocentrism, homophily, ingroup bias, outgroup antipathy, dominance, and resistance. System justification theory is influenced by these perspectives—including social identity and social dominance theories—but it departs from them in several respects. Advocates of system justification theory argue that (a) there is a general ideological motive to justify the existing social order, (b) this motive is at least partially responsible for the internalization of inferiority among members of disadvantaged groups, (c) it is observed most readily at an implicit, nonconscious level of awareness and (d) paradoxically, it is sometimes strongest among those who are most harmed by the status quo. This article reviews and integrates 10 years of research on 20 hypotheses derived from a system justification perspective, focusing on the phenomenon of implicit outgroup favoritism among members of disadvantaged groups (including African Americans, the elderly, and gays/lesbians) and its relation to political ideology (especially liberalism-conservatism).     

Representational momentum in memory for pitch

When a visual pattern is displayed at successively different orientations such that a rotation or translation is implied, an observer's memory for the final position is displaced forward. This phenomenon of representational momentum shares some similarities with physical momentum. For instance, the amount of memory shift is proportional to the implied velocity of the inducing display; representational momentum is specifically proportional to the final, not the average, velocity; representational momentum follows a continuous stopping function for the first 250 ms or so of the retention interval. In a previous paper (Kelly & Freyd, 1987) we demonstrated a forward memory asymmetry using implied changes in pitch, for subjects without formal musical training. In the current paper we replicate our earlier finding and show that the forward memory asymmetry occurs for subjects with formal musical training as well (Experiment 1). We then show the structural similarity between representational momentum in memory for pitch with previous reports of parametric effects using visual stimuli. We report a velocity effect for auditory momentum (Experiment 2), we demonstrate specifically that the velocity effect depends on the implied acceleration (Experiment 3), and we show that the stopping function for auditory momentum is qualitatively the same as that for visual momentum (Experiment 4). We consider the implications of these results for theories of mental representation.     

Measurement and the Justification of the Statistical Postulate in Bohm's Causal Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics

I briefly sketch Bohm's causal interpretation (BCI) and its solution to the measurement problem. Crucial to BCI's no-collapse account of both ideal and non-ideal measurement is the existence of particles in addition to wavefunctions. The particles in their role as the producers of the observable experimental outcomes render practical considerations, such as what observables can be reasonably measured or how to get rid of interference terms in non-ideal measurements, secondary to BCI's account of measurement. I then explain why it is not easy for BCI to justify its statistical postulate. To successfully justify the postulate would be to solve the distribution problem. Two proposed deterministic solutions to this problem are only briefly set out and not discussed in detail. BCI can solve the measurement problem whether or not the distribution problem is solved. However, if the distribution problem is not solved, BCI cannot be shown to be empirically adequate. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Representational change in resources for pictorial innovation: A three-component analysis

Representational development can be assessed by whether children can break routine procedures to draw something novel. Two resources for innovation have been canvassed: early capacity to be reactive to external models, and later flexibility enabling children to be proactive in the absence of models. We contend that available evidence on their relations is unclear, and that a third resource resides in children's use of their framework theory of possible objectives. In 5 experiments, children aged 5 and 9 years received open-ended challenges to alter their pictorial routines (draw à man who doesn't exist', ‘a man with something missing’); and specific tasks (draw a two-headed man, a headless man, a man without a trunk, a man who is both an animal and a man, a man who is both a house and a man, drawing-completion). Older children (a) made spontaneous innovations that were obtainable from younger children under specific instruction, (b) were relatively self-reliant where younger children relied more on external models, (c) did more advance planning, (d) monitored more closely their emerging drawing, and (e) often had greater awareness of what they did. It is argued that (a) use of external models plays an early inspirational role but also masks the extent of an internal resource, and (b) effective use of an internal resource occurs through monitoring how attainment approaches an objective set by the child's theory of pictures.     

Avoiding Authoritarianism: On the Problem of Justification in Contemporary Critical Social Theory

Abstract

Critical social theories look critically at the ways in which particular social arrangements hinder human flourishing, with a view to bringing about social change for the better. In this they are guided by the idea of a good society in which the identified social impediments to human flourishing would once and for all have been removed. The question of how these guiding ideas of the good life can be justified as valid across socio‐cultural contexts and historical epochs is the most fundamental difficulty facing critical social theories today. This problem of justification, which can be traced back to certain key shifts in the modern Western social imaginary, calls on contemporary theories to negotiate the tensions between the idea of context‐transcendent validity and their own anti‐authoritarian impulses. Habermas makes an important contribution towards resolving the problem, but takes a number of wrong turnings.