论企业的内部与外部治理结构的统一

本文通过对国外有关企业治理结构的大量经典性文献的回顾和综述,提出了企业治理结构要达到内部治理与外部治理相统一、共同实现企业目标的思想.企业的性质决定了企业的目标是实现内部资源优化配置和外部关系整合,从而达到绩效最优.企业治理结构研究的是企业资本供给者得到投资回报的方法问题,企业治理结构是指所有者对一个经营管理和绩效进行监督和控制的一整套制度安排.企业治理的合理逻辑应该是市场与环境整治--内部控制与激励--企业治理绩效.     

现场实验的内部和外部效度——兼与实验室实验的效度比较

区分了现场实验、实验室实验和准实验的不同,介绍现场实验的方式和特点,分析比较了现场实验和实验室实验的内部和外部效度,指出如何权衡两种效度,选择适当的研究方式.     

内部动机与外部动机的关系

内部动机与外部动机的关系问题在20世纪90年代重新成为动机研究的热点。该文综述了内部动机与外部动机关系的实验研究与理论研究状况。认为实验研究经历了外部动机削弱内部动机、外部动机与内部动机共存、外部动机能够对内部动机产生促进作用三个阶段,研究者的心理学立场是造成分歧结果出现的重要原因;不同的理论模式各有所长,尤其是自我决定理论的新进展“有机辨证元理论”中关于需要的阐述是近期动机研究的亮点,在更高层次上实现了对内部动机与外部动机关系的整合。并提出探讨内部动机与外部动机具体成分之间的关系,检验特质状态与情境状态中二者的相互作用,及心理需要对情境与动机的中介机制应当成为未来研究的方向     

内部动机、外部动机与创造力的关系研究

本研究以277名文科三、四年级的大学生为被试,综合考察在故事、连线和命名任务下,内部动机,外部动机对创造力表现的影响。多变量方差分析发现,对于三个测验的共同部分,内部动机和外部动机的主效应均显著,但交互作用不显著。分别对每个任务进行方差分析发现,对于连线任务而言,内部动机和外部动机的主效应均显著;对于命名任务而言,外部动机的主效应显著,内部动机的主效应不显著;对于故事任务而言,内部动机和外部动机的主效应不显著。内部动机与外部动机之间在三个任务中均不存在显著的交互作用。多重回归分析发现,对于不同的任务,内部动机与外部动机的贡献显著不同。     

心理旋转中的外部参考框架的眼动研究

采用EyelinkⅡ眼动记录仪,探讨17-38岁的被试在有外部参考框架时,心理旋转中的眼动特征.结果表明:(1)外部刺激和外部参考框架同时呈现时,内部参考框架可以随着外部参考框架的方向的变化而修正,心理旋转通过框架旋转完成;(2)外部参考框架对于旋转角度远离直立方向的心理旋转作用小于旋转角度接近直立方向的;(3)有外部参考框架时,以直立方向为准,顺时针的心理旋转与逆时针的心理旋转没有差异,旋转遵循"最短加工路径"原则.     

死亡心理:外部防御还是内在成长?

对西方主要的死亡心理研究进行了回顾和比较分析,不同的死亡心理研究在研究传统、研究对象和研究方法方面存在差异。但是根据研究的侧重点,可以总结出死亡心理的核心内涵:外部防御和内在成长。对死亡的抽象认知产生死亡焦虑,死亡焦虑产生死亡恐惧、自我保护、外在价值导向等外部防御反应;对死亡的具体认知产生死亡反省,死亡反省产生死亡接受、亲社会动机和行为、内在价值导向等内在成长反应。作者以死亡心理的两类反应为框架,综述了近5年来新的研究证据,并对该领域当前研究的局限和未来研究方向进行了分析。     

问题解决中对问题的外部表征和内部表征

传统观点认为,问题表征是问题解决构建问题的心理结构,是内在的知识、结构和神经网络,是问题解决的根本机制。但近来研究发现,问题的呈现方式、问题情景的成分和结构也对问题解决行为具有独立的指导、约束或决定作用,因此可以把问题表征划分为外部表征和内部表征。这两种表征具有不同的特征,对问题解决具有不同的作用机制。就学科问题解决来说,当前研究主要集中在表征的结构及影响因素方面,未来一个时期,此方面的研究迫切需要探明外部表征的结构、形式、内容及其与内部表征之间相互作用的机制,并建构适宜的研究方法体系。     

中学生心理控制区水平与创造力关系的研究

本研究探讨了在同样的外部强化条件下,不同心理控制区水平的初、高中学生在创造力上的变化,结果表明:初、高中内控组的内控分数与创造力的独特性分数之间相关值达到显着水平;初中内控组在创造力三项指标上皆高于外控组;高中内控组在创造力的独特性、灵活性指标上高于外控组。     

目标内容效应及其心理机制

以自我决定论为基础的目标内容理论认为,内部目标是指反映个体的内在成长趋向的目标,如自我接受、亲密关系、健康等;外部目标是指如何获得外部奖赏或社会赞许,通过获得外部的价值给别人留下深刻的印象等目标,如财富、权力、地位等。大量的研究表明内、外部目标有着不同的效应,而基本心理需要（关系、胜任、自主）是被证实的能解释内、外部目标内容效应的心理机制。在未来的研究中除了更深入地去探讨其心理机制之外,还要积极进行本土化的实证研究     

“外部的思想”与“横向的逻辑”

形而上学是一种以“再现”方式不断重复的同一性活动,它把瞬间的判断加以凝固,做出“必然性”的结论,并同时排斥精神的其他可能性。“外部的思想”是对形而上学精神传统的暴力,它认为“再现”最终会导致一种陌生事物之间关系的差异活动,这种关系遵循一种“横向的逻辑”。“横向的逻辑”放弃关于事物“起源”的假设,也就是不假定时间与空间中的“某一点”和“其他点”比照具有特权地位。事物不是按照某个中心点为基础发展起来的,而是无数个彼此毫无关系“点”的陌生合作关系促成的,而这样的合作关系具有任意性。在“横向的逻辑”中,用很多“出发点”或者“精神的拐点”代替独一无二的“起源”。     

Psychophysics of key-peck duration in the pigeon

The duration of the pigeon's key peck was differentially reinforced in either a trials or a free-operant procedure. Mean emitted peck duration was a power function of the duration required for food delivery to occur. The exponents of the power function differed considerably from those observed in earlier research involving longer duration responses in pigeons and other species. The coefficients of variation also did not correspond with those of the earlier research on other responses, nor did consideration of the durations actually reinforced resolve the differences. Duration was neither a function of response rate nor of intermittency of reinforcement. Key-peck duration was changed in an orderly way by differential reinforcement. However, it appeared to be more strongly determined by its duration in the absence of differential reinforcement than were longer duration responses.     

Plotinus on the Inner Sense

Recently, there has been a growing interest in ancient views on consciousness and particularly in their influence on medieval and early modern philosophers. Here I suggest a new interpretation of Plotinus’s account of consciousness which, if correct, may help us to reconsider his role in the history of the notion of the inner sense. I argue that, while explaining how our divided soul can be a unitary subject of the states and activities of its parts, Plotinus develops an original account of consciousness that appeals to an inner sense. In contrast to ‘the outer senses’, which perceive sensible things out there in the world, this sense, for him, perceives the activities of the parts of our soul, thus enabling us to be conscious of them as a single subject. I suggest that Plotinus devises his account of this psychic power in the light of Alexander of Aphrodisias’s interpretation of the Aristotelian ‘common sense’. Since in Alexander the ‘common sense’ enables us to be conscious as a single subject of sensations from different modalities, Plotinus uses it as a model to explain how we can be the conscious subject of all the states and activities of our soul.     

Wittgenstein and the Dualism of the Inner and the Outer

A dualism characteristic of modern philosophy is the conception of the inner and the outer as two independently intelligible domains. Wittgenstein’s attack on this dualism contains deep insights. The main insight (excavated from §304 and §293 of the Philosophical Investigations) is this: our sensory consciousness is deeply shaped by language and this shaping plays a fundamental role in the etiology of the dualism. I locate this role in the learning of a sensation-language (as described in §244), by showing that this learning is, under another aspect, the incision of language, namely the infliction of cuts upon certain natural-primitive unities between the inner and the outer. These cuts, driven by powerful forces, eventually harden into an entrenched division between the inner and the outer, thereby providing a constant soil for the dualism. That this dualism is rooted in the very learning of a language is cause for ambivalence about language.     

The Inner and the Outer: Kant's 'Refutation' Reconstructed

In Skeptical idealism says that possibly nothing exists outside my own conscious mental states. Purported refutations of skeptical idealism – whether Descartes's, Locke's, Reid's, Kant's, Moore's, Putnam's, or Burge's – are philosophically scandalous: they have convinced no one. I argue (1) that what is wrong with the failed refutations is that they have attempted to prove the wrong thing – i.e., that necessarily I have veridical perceptions of distal material objects in space, and (2) that a charitable reconstruction of Kant's 'Refutation of Idealism' in fact provides a sound refutation of skeptical idealism.     

Psychophysics and the anisotropy of time

In psychophysics, experimental control over the presented stimuli is an important prerequisite. Due to the anisotropy of time, this prerequisite is not given in psychophysical experiments on time perception. Many important factors (e.g., the direction of perceived time flow) cannot be manipulated in timing experiments. The anisotropy of time is a peculiarity, which distinguishes the time dimension from other perceptual qualities.Here I summarize the anisotropy-related differences between the perception of time and the perception of other qualities. It is discussed to what extent these differences might affect results and interpretations in psychophysical experiments. In conclusion, I argue for a ‘view from nowhen’ on the psychophysical study of time perception.     

On Continuity: Rush Rhees on Outer and Inner Surfaces of Bodies

This article presents an edited excerpt from a hitherto unknown fragmentary treatise by Rush Rhees. In the treatise, Rhees gives his account of the problem of continuity that he had started elaborating before he became acquainted with Wittgenstein. The excerpt, which contains Rhees' original distinction between outer and inner surfaces of bodies, builds on Brentano's theory of the continuum and his doctrine of plerosis. This treatment of continuity sheds light on Rhees' early philosophical development and confirms that even though he and Wittgenstein discussed the problem of continuity, Rhees' own approach remained distinct from that of Wittgenstein.     

The Effect of Maltreatment Type on Adolescent Executive Functioning and Inner Speech

There are indications that different types of maltreatment can lead to different cognitive and behavioural outcomes. This study investigated whether maltreatment type was related to executive functioning (EF) abilities and the use of inner speech. Forty maltreated adolescents and a comparison group of 40 non‐maltreated typically developing adolescents completed a battery of tasks designed to assess both their EF abilities and their vulnerability to disruptions to inner speech. They also completed an IQ test. Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) and ANCOVA analyses were carried out to examine potential effects of maltreatment type (abuse alone; neglect alone; abuse/neglect combined and no maltreatment) on EF and use of inner speech. Maltreatment type was related to EF abilities. In particular, abuse only and abuse/neglect combined had a greater negative impact on EF than neglect only. However, the neglect alone group was more vulnerable to disruptions to inner speech than the other two maltreatment groups, suggesting that they may be more reliant on the use of inner speech. These findings provide new insights into the differential impact of maltreatment type on EF and the use of inner speech in adolescence and could be used to improve the educational outcomes of these vulnerable young people. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Violation of Inner and Outer Boundaries in Political Persecution

One of the consequences of persecution for the individual is the experienced confusion of inner and outer worlds. With the help of a broadened concept of the transitional space, derived from Winnicott, we could understand the various psychological consequences of structural physical violence. The violation of the transitional space during physical violence can result in a transformation to an inorganic state, an introjection or incorporation of the bad object into the self, intrusive re-experiencing and shattered assumptions often seen long after psychotrauma. In this article a broadened and elaborated concept of transitional space is described. Therefore, several theoretical concepts, such as inner and outer world are discussed and defined which makes it possible to put them into practice of psychotherapy and research. An example is given of a documented case of imprisonment under extreme conditions in which the prisoners were able to build up a common transitional space in order to survive. In this case, the transitional space is not an aid for the passage from one developmental phase to another, but instead a way of keeping open the connection between the psychic inner world, the world of the prison and the free world outside the prison walls. It is suggested to extend the concept of the transitional space to this meaning.     

A note on the nonmetric analysis of psychological intervals for an unknown ordering of stimuli

A modified version of a coordinate adjustment technique which permits the analysis of comparisons of psychological intervals for an unknown ordering of stimuli is described and compared to the original version and to TORSCA. For configurations with a large number of points, knowledge of the rank order of the stimuli does not improve the solution. For configurations with a small number of points, the performance of the new algorithm with an unknown ordering is equivalent to TORSCA.This research was supported by a grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.