Working memory and planning during sentence production

Speakers retrieve conceptual, syntactic and lexical information in advance of articulation during sentence production. What type of working memory (WM) store is used to hold the planned information before speaking? To address this question, we measured onset latencies when subjects produced sentences that began with either a complex or a simple initial noun phrase, while holding semantic, phonological or spatial information in WM. Although we found that subjects had longer onset latencies for sentences beginning with a complex noun phrase, showing a phrasal scope of planning, the magnitude of this complexity effect was not affected by any type of WM load. However, subjects made more syntactic errors (but not lexical errors) for sentences beginning with a complex noun phrase, suggesting that advance planning for these phrases occurs at a syntactic rather than lexical–semantic level, which may account for the lack of effect with various types of WM load in the current study.     

Morphology by itself in planning the production of spoken words

The authors report a study in Dutch that used an on-line preparation paradigm to test the issue of semantic dependency versus morphological autonomy in the production of polymorphemic words. Semantically transparent complex words (likeinput in English) and semantically opaque complex words (likeinvoice) showed clear evidence of morphological structure in word-form encoding, since both exhibited an equally large preparation effect that was much greater than that for morphologically simple words (likeinsect). These results suggest that morphemes may be planning units in the production of complex words, without making a semantic contribution, thereby supporting the autonomy view. Language production establishes itself as a domain in which morphology may operate “by itself” (Aronoff, 1994) without recourse to meaning.     

Effector-independent and effector-dependent learning in the discrete sequence production task

This study examined whether skill in the discrete sequence production task involves, apart from the typical effector-independent component, an effector-dependent component. To that end, 12 participants practiced two 5-key sequences, each for 1,060 trials. One group practiced with three fingers of one hand, the other group with three fingers of two hands. In a subsequent test phase, participants in both groups executed the same sequences and two new sequences with the hand configuration they had used during practice, and with the hand configuration of the other group. The results provide support for an effector-dependent component in that both groups performed the practiced sequences faster with the hand configuration they had used during practice than with the hand configuration that was new to them. In addition, the unpracticed hand configuration performed the practiced sequences faster than the new sequence, which demonstrated the effector-independent component.     

Speed, accuracy, and serial order in sequence production

The production of complex sequences like music or speech requires the rapid and temporally precise production of events (e.g., notes and chords), often at fast rates. Memory retrieval in these circumstances may rely on the simultaneous activation of both the current event and the surrounding context (Lashley, 1951). We describe an extension to a model of incremental retrieval in sequence production (Palmer & Pfordresher, 2003) that incorporates this logic to predict overall error rates and speed-accuracy trade-offs, as well as types of serial ordering errors. The model-assumes that retrieval of the current event is influenced by activations of surrounding events. Activations of surrounding events increase over time, such that both the accessibility of distant events and overall accuracy increases at slower production rates. The model's predictions were tested in an experiment in which pianists performed unfamiliar music at 8 different tempi. Model fits to speed-accuracy data and to serial ordering errors support model predictions. Parameter fits to individual data further suggest that working memory contributes to the retrieval of serial order and overall accuracy is influenced in addition by motor dexterity and domain-specific skill.     

Hierarchy and scope of planning in subject–verb agreement production

Two subject–verb agreement error elicitation studies tested the hierarchical feature-passing account of agreement computation in production and three timing-based alternatives: linear distance to the head noun, semantic integration, and a combined effect of both (a scope of planning account). In Experiment 1, participants completed subject noun phrase (NP) stimuli consisting of a head NP followed by two prepositional phrase (PP) modifiers, where the first PP modified the first NP, and the second PP modified one of the two preceding NPs. Semantic integration between the head noun and the local noun within each PP was held constant across structures. The mismatch error pattern showed an effect of linear distance to the head noun and no influence of hierarchical distance. In Experiment 2, participants completed NP PP PP stimuli in which both PPs modified the head noun, and both the order of the two PPs and the local nouns’ degree of semantic integration with the head noun were varied. The pattern of mismatch errors reflected a combination of semantic integration and linear distance to the head noun. These studies indicate that agreement processes are strongly constrained by grammatical-level scope of planning, with local nouns planned closer to the head having a greater chance of interfering with agreement computation.     

The experience of agency in sequence production with altered auditory feedback

When speaking or producing music, people rely in part on auditory feedback - the sounds associated with the performed action. Three experiments investigated the degree to which alterations of auditory feedback (AAF) during music performances influence the experience of agency (i.e., the sense that your actions led to auditory events) and the possible link between agency and the disruptive effect of AAF on production. Participants performed short novel melodies from memory on a keyboard. Auditory feedback during performances was manipulated with respect to its pitch contents and/or its synchrony with actions. Participants rated their experience of agency after each trial. In all experiments, AAF reduced judgments of agency across conditions. Performance was most disrupted (measured by error rates and slowing) when AAF led to an ambiguous experience of agency, suggesting that there may be some causal relationship between agency and disruption. However, analyses revealed that these two effects were probably independent. A control experiment verified that performers can make veridical judgments of agency.     

Participatory planning and children's emotional labor in the production of urban nature

Children have increasingly been called upon to participate in the planning of their communities, especially in projects associated with urban nature and outdoor play spaces. Building upon the concept of emotional labor, we critically explore how children become enrolled in such initiatives. Specifically, we focus on the emotional geographies underlining children's participation, including the emotions children exhibit invest, experience and produce in these projects, as well as the ways these emotions are regulated, framed and used by urban managers and policy-makers in participatory planning activities. Our theoretical framework intersects research on emotional labor with recent geographic literature on children, urban governance, and emotions. We explore the idea of children's and young people's emotional labor through an analysis of a collaborative effort between local nonprofits, government agencies, youth organizations and research institutions aimed at addressing the lack of public green space in a disenfranchised urban community in California. The empirical evidence is drawn from a research project in which we engaged a group of 9–11 year old children in a variety of planning activities involving participatory mapping, use of visual media, and focus groups.     

Temporal coordination between actions and sound during sequence production

Delayed auditory feedback (DAF) causes asynchronies between perception and action that disrupt sequence production. Different delay lengths cause differing amounts of disruption that may reflect the phase location of feedback onsets relative to produced inter-response intervals, or the absolute temporal separation between actions and sounds. Two experiments addressed this issue by comparing the effects of traditional DAF, which uses a constant temporal separation, with delays that adjust temporal separation to maintain the phase location of feedback onsets within inter-response intervals. Participants played simple isochronous melodies on a keyboard, or tapped an isochronous beat, at three production rates. Disruption was best predicted by the phase location of feedback onsets, and diminished when feedback onsets formed harmonic phase ratios (phase synchrony). Both delay types led to similar effects. Different movement tasks (melody production versus tapping) led to slightly different patterns of disruption across phase that may relate to differing task demands. In general, these results support the view that perception and action are coordinated in relative rather than absolute time.     

Incremental validity principles in test construction

The authors articulate 5 basic principles for enhancing incremental validity, both among elements within a test and between tests, during test construction: (a) careful, precise articulation of each element or facet within the content domain; (b) reliable measurement of each facet through use of multiple, alternate-form items; (c) examination of incremental validity at the facet level rather than the broad construct level; (d) use of items that represent single facets rather than combinations of facets; and (e) empirical examination of whether there is a broad construct or a combination of separate constructs. Using these principles, the authors offer specific suggestions for modifications in 3 classic test construction approaches; (a) criterion keying, (b) inductive test construction, and (c) deductive test construction. Implementation of these suggestions is likely to provide theoretical clarification and improved prediction.     

Incremental exercise in dynamic visual acuity

As research is limited the purpose of this study was to investigate dynamic visual acuity while cycling at different exercise loads. Accuracy of dynamic visual acuity scores of 20 college-age participants was analyzed by a repeated-measures analysis of variance which indicated improved dynamic visual acuity during cycling as the intensity of exercise increased. A retention test conducted two days after testing yielded evidence of trainability of dynamic visual acuity. In the discussion findings were compared to other visual functions associated with exercise.     

Effects of cognitive impairment on prosodic parameters of speech production planning in multiple sclerosis

Cognitive impairment (CI) affects 40–65% of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). CI can have a negative impact on a patient's everyday activities, such as engaging in conversations. Speech production planning ability is crucial for successful verbal interactions and thus for preserving social and occupational skills. This study investigates the effect of cognitive-linguistic demand and CI on speech production planning in MS, as reflected in speech prosody. A secondary aim is to explore the clinical potential of prosodic features for the prediction of an individual's cognitive status in MS. A total of 45 subjects, that is 22 healthy controls (HC) and 23 patients in early stages of relapsing-remitting MS, underwent neuropsychological tests probing specific cognitive processes involved in speech production planning. All subjects also performed a read speech task, in which they had to read isolated sentences manipulated as for phonological length. Results show that the speech of MS patients with CI is mainly affected at the temporal level (articulation and speech rate, pause duration). Regression analyses further indicate that rate measures are correlated with working memory scores. In addition, linear discriminant analysis shows the ROC AUC of identifying MS patients with CI is 0.70 (95% confidence interval: 0.68–0.73). Our findings indicate that prosodic planning is deficient in patients with MS-CI and that the scope of planning depends on patients’ cognitive abilities. We discuss how speech-based approaches could be used as an ecological method for the assessment and monitoring of CI in MS.     

Planning in sentence production: Evidence for the phrase as a default planning scope

Controversy remains as to the scope of advanced planning in language production. Smith and Wheeldon (1999) found significantly longer onset latencies when subjects described moving-picture displays by producing sentences beginning with a complex noun phrase than for matched sentences beginning with a simple noun phrase. While these findings are consistent with a phrasal scope of planning, they might also be explained on the basis of: (1) greater retrieval fluency for the second content word in the simple initial noun phrase sentences and (2) visual grouping factors. In Experiments 1 and 2, retrieval fluency for the second content word was equated for the complex and simple initial noun phrase conditions. Experiments 3 and 4 addressed the visual grouping hypothesis by using stationary displays and by comparing onset latencies for the same display for sentence and list productions. Longer onset latencies for the sentences beginning with a complex noun phrase were obtained in all experiments, supporting the phrasal scope of planning hypothesis. The results indicate that in speech, as in other motor production domains, planning occurs beyond the minimal production unit.     

"易卦"的序结构数学模型在对策理论中的应用

通过分析人类的基本行为元素,并借助于"卦象"序结构数学模型的建立,从而初步讨论了一般谋略方法的产生和起源,以及谋略对策的系统核心元素结构;最后讨论了它们在应用中的初步分类.     

Incremental grouping of image elements in vision

One important task for the visual system is to group image elements that belong to an object and to segregate them from other objects and the background. We here present an incremental grouping theory (IGT) that addresses the role of object-based attention in perceptual grouping at a psychological level and, at the same time, outlines the mechanisms for grouping at the neurophysiological level. The IGT proposes that there are two processes for perceptual grouping. The first process is base grouping and relies on neurons that are tuned to feature conjunctions. Base grouping is fast and occurs in parallel across the visual scene, but not all possible feature conjunctions can be coded as base groupings. If there are no neurons tuned to the relevant feature conjunctions, a second process called incremental grouping comes into play. Incremental grouping is a time-consuming and capacity-limited process that requires the gradual spread of enhanced neuronal activity across the representation of an object in the visual cortex. The spread of enhanced neuronal activity corresponds to the labeling of image elements with object-based attention.     

Making your next move: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and planning a sequence of actions in freely moving monkeys

Prefrontal damage disrupts planning, as measured by disorders of the activities of daily living (Humphreys & Forde, 1998; Shallice & Burgess, 1991). In a monkey model of this form of planning, a variant of the delayed alternation task was performed by freely moving monkeys. In a 16 x 16-ft. testing room, four feeders were located in the middle of each wall. In the north task, monkeys alternated between feeders: west-north-east-north-west, and so forth. In the south task, the alternation sequence was east-south-west-south-east, and so forth. Neuronal activity was recorded during walking along the eight paths, constituting the north and south tasks. To succeed, monkeys had to memorize the alternation rule and monitor both their place in the sequence and the previously made spatially directed action before deciding to walk to a new location to the left or right of the current location. Responsive dorsolateral prefrontal neurons are strikingly selective. Sustained neuronal activity reflects the spatial direction of an ongoing or upcoming response. It is important that such selective responses occur in one but not both tasks, even though the movements are exactly the same in both tasks and at each location. We suggest that selective neuronal activity is tuned through learning and reflects the fundamental units of a planning mechanism: Individual neurons encode specific components of a sequence of behavioral actions and their temporal order. Populations of such neurons represent all the steps necessary to perform the north and south tasks. The sustained activity of these neurons suggests that planning and working memory mechanisms are integrated.     

Strategic sequence planning and prospective memory impairments in frontally lesioned head trauma patients performing activities of daily living

The aim of this research was to study strategic sequence planning and prospective memory in activities of daily living (ADL) in 10 patients with frontal lobe lesions after a mild to moderate closed head injury (CHI). The lesions were documented radiologically. The CHI patients were compared to 12 normal controls with a neuropsychological test battery and a realistic simulation of complex multitask ADL (planning and preparing a meal). Though the CHI patients were significantly slow on one test and subject to interference on an attention test, they manifested no basic executive or memory deficit on the paper-pencil tests. However, the CHI patients manifested marked anomalies in the organization of behavior in the meal preparation task. While small sequences of actions were easily produced, large action sets could not be correctly executed. An outstanding difficulty in strategic planning and prospective memory, particularly time-based more than event-based, appears to be an important underpinning of the impairment of ADL observed in the CHI patients with frontal lobe lesions.     

Adjusting Incremental Fit Indices for Nonnormality

A variety of indices are commonly used to assess model fit in structural equation modeling. However, fit indices obtained from the normal theory maximum likelihood fit function are affected by the presence of nonnormality in the data. We present a nonnormality correction for 2 commonly used incremental fit indices, the comparative fit index and the Tucker-Lewis index. This correction uses the Satorra-Bentler scaling constant to modify the sample estimate of these fit indices but does not affect the population value. We argue that this type of nonnormality correction is superior to the correction that changes the population value of the fit index implemented in some software programs. In a simulation study, we demonstrate that our correction performs well across a variety of sample sizes, model types, and misspecification types.     

The segment as the minimal planning unit in speech production: Evidence based on absolute response latencies

A minimal amount of information about a word must be phonologically and phonetically encoded before a person can begin to utter that word. Most researchers assume that the minimum is the complete word or possibly the initial syllable. However, there is some evidence that the initial segment is sufficient based on longer durations when the initial segment is primed. In two experiments in which the initial segment of a monosyllabic word is primed or not primed, we present additional evidence based on very short absolute response times determined on the basis of acoustic and articulatory onset relative to presentation of the complete target. We argue that the previous failures to find very short absolute response times when the initial segment is primed are due in part to the exclusive use of acoustic onset as a measure of response latency, the exclusion of responses with very short acoustic latencies, the manner of articulation of the initial segment (i.e., plosive vs. nonplosive), and individual differences. Theoretical implications of the segment as the minimal planning unit are considered.     

Incremental effects of reward on creativity

The authors examined 2 ways reward might increase creativity. First, reward contingent on creativity might increase extrinsic motivation. Studies 1 and 2 found that repeatedly giving preadolescent students reward for creative performance in 1 task increased their creativity in subsequent tasks. Study 3 reported that reward promised for creativity increased college students' creative task performance. Second, expected reward for high performance might increase creativity by enhancing perceived self-determination and, therefore, intrinsic task interest. Study 4 found that employees' intrinsic job interest mediated a positive relationship between expected reward for high performance and creative suggestions offered at work. Study 5 found that employees' perceived self-determination mediated a positive relationship between expected reward for high performance and the creativity of anonymous suggestions for helping the organization.