Effects of Public Speaking Trait Anxiety and Intensity of Speaking Task on Heart Rate During Performance

The extant research examining the relationship between public speaking trait anxiety and heart rate has produced mixed findings. Some studies observe only weak relationships, whereas others report significant relationships between these variables. H. J. Eysetick has maintained that the degree of relationship between traits and heart rate depends on the stress levels under which the respondents perform when heart rate data are collected. An inspection of the existing studies shows that, consistent with Eysenck's observation, the studies reporting relationships between public speaking trait anxiety and heart rate were conducted under relatively low-intensity conditions in comparison to those reporting no such relationships. In the present study, heart rates of both anxious and nonanxious speakers were measured under both high- and low-intensity conditions. Results indicated that (a) heart rates of anxious speakers were significantly higher than those of nonanxious speakers when both performed under low-intensity conditions, but (b) heart rates were not different for anxious and nonanxious speakers when performing in high-intensity environments. These results provide a reconciliation of the inconsistent research findings and partially support the extension of Eysenck's conceptualization to communication apprehension theory and research.     

Trait anxiety, trait depression, worry, and memory

A study is reported which investigated the proposal that high trait anxiety is associated with a memory bias for worry themes. Forty-five participants were categorised as being high or low trait anxious on the basis of scores on the (Spielberger et al., 1983) (Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y) (1983)). The participants were requested to rate a number of worry and non-worry statements for how much they generally thought about the issues represented by them. Analysis of the ratings given by the participants showed that low trait anxiety individuals thought about the non-worry items significantly more than worry items. The high trait anxiety participants, however, showed little or no difference in the amount of time spent thinking about worry and non-worry themes. In a subsequent free recall task of the statements it was observed that the low trait anxiety group recalled significantly more non-worry than worry items, whereas there was no such difference for the high trait group. It was also found that the degree of memory bias was related to both positive affectivity and trait anxiety. The implications of such findings are discussed.     

Motivational effects in the social comparison of opinions

Four experiments were executed to test the effects of different epistemic motivations on subjects' tendency to compare with agreeing or disagreeing others. We found that under high (vs. low) fear of invalidity, subjects tend more to compare with disagreeing (vs. agreeing) others. By contrast, under high (vs. low) need for self-confirmation or a high (vs. low) need for cognitive structure, subjects tended more to compare with agreeing others. These results are discussed in reference to social comparison formulations (Festinger, 1954; Goethals & Darley, 1977) and the theory of lay epistemology (Kruglanski & Ajzen, 1983; Kruglanski & Freund, 1983).     

新颖性寻求对创造性行为表现的影响：语义网络的中介作用

研究采用物品多用途任务、中文复合远距离联想任务和汉语双字词词对相关性判断任务,考察新颖性寻求特质水平对创造性表现的影响,探明语义网络在其中的作用。结果发现：高新颖性寻求个体在物品多用途任务中有更高的新颖性得分,而在中文复合远距离联想任务中与低新颖性寻求个体表现一致;在低相关词对判断时,高新颖性寻求个体反应时更短;低相关词对的判断反应时在新颖性寻求对创造性行为表现的影响中起部分中介作用。结果预示,新颖性寻求特质有利于个体建构形成能快速激活远距离信息的语义网络,进而促进创造性行为表现。     

自尊与心理性应激的关系初探

自尊水平影响着个体在应激情境中的内分泌反应,在以人个人主义文化下的研究发现,由于低自尊具有较低的内部控制力,因此在应激情境中的唾液皮质醇反应更强烈。但是在中国集体主义文化中,由于集体性自我的评价是自尊的一个重要组成部分,高自尊更加期望集体或社会的积极性评价,因此假设在心理性应激情境下（即个体的能力被否定的时候）,高自尊的应激反应会比低自尊更加强烈。本研究以健康大学生为被试,分别以Rosenberg自尊量表和特里尔社会应激测试（TSST）为实验手段,以自尊量表得分、主观应激报告（5点量表）和客观应激参数（心率和唾液皮质醇）为指标,在中国文化背景下探讨自尊与心理性应激的关系。结果发现,在TSST开始时（20分钟）自尊与心率呈正相关,自尊水平越高,心率越快;在TSST结束后（60分钟）自尊与唾液皮质醇水平呈正相关,自尊水平越高,唾液皮质醇水平越高。总体来说,相对于低自尊被试而言,高自尊被试在心理性应激情境中的反应更为强烈。     

High Trait Cheerfulness Individuals are More Sensitive to the Emotional Environment

The aim of this paper was to study whether trait cheerfulness modulates changes in state cheerfulness as a result of exposing participants to affective stimuli. Two studies with a within-participant experimental design were carried out. Forty-eight (33 women) and sixty-four (45 women) undergraduate psychology students were selected as Sample 1 and Sample 2, respectively, for scoring high or low on the Trait Form of the State-Trait-Cheerfulness Inventory (STCI-T; Ruch et al. in Humor Int J Humor Res 9:303–339, 1996; Ruch et al. in Personal Individ Differ 22:477–491, 1997). Participants watched amusing, neutral, and sad film clips and reported their affective states before and after viewing them. In the second study, heart rate and skin conductance level were also recorded. Results showed that people with high trait cheerfulness reported greater changes in state cheerfulness when exposed to both amusing and sad film clips, showing larger increases and decreases in state cheerfulness, respectively, than participants with low trait cheerfulness. Effects were not mediated by social desirability. Furthermore, people with low trait cheerfulness showed a greater heart rate deceleration during the visioning of the clips compared to high trait cheerfulness participants, especially in an amusing scene with high emotional load. No modulation on trait cheerfulness was found for skin conductance level. Data with self-report and electrophysiological measures are discussed, highlighting that high trait cheerfulness people are more permeable to affective events, perhaps showing a better understanding and management of them.     

An Empirical Assessment of the GAM Theory of Creativity

ABSTRACT: Therivel (1993, 1998, 1999a, 1999b), in a series of articles, presented the GAM theory of creativity, which postulates that creativity is a function of genetics, assistances, and misfortunes. Two studies were undertaken to determine whether empirical data support this theory. In the first study, a sample of 529 undergraduate students completed a questionnaire designed to assess their creativity and the presence of anecdotal evidence regarding the three components of Therivel's theory. Two subsamples were formed of high creative (n = 40) and low creative (n = 38) individuals, and their scores on the three components were compared. In a second study, college students who were low on creativity but either high (n = 52) or low (n = 47) on academic achievement were identified and compared to the high creative individuals of Study 1 on the three components. In general, the results present at best modest support for Therivel's theory and no difference in applicability of the theory to creativity versus achievement.     

Detecting Anxiety and Defensiveness from Visual and Auditory Cues

ABSTRACT Defensive individuals have been shown to differ from non-defensive individuals on a number of physiological and behavioral measures. We report two studies on observers' inferences of defensiveness, and the contribution of communication channels in the inference of defensiveness. Observers judged high and low state anxious segments of high and low trait anxious defensive and nondefensive individuals. Accurate assessments were made of (a) defensiveness, (b) state anxiety, and (c) trait anxiety: Individuals with higher levels of each variable were perceived as more anxious compared with the lower level. Effects for defensiveness and state anxiety were greater in audio-only segments, while effects for trait anxiety were greater in video-only segments. Inferences of defensiveness were greater at higher levels of state anxiety and trait anxiety. Low trait anxious defensive individuals were perceived as more anxious than the true low trait anxious. Results for defensiveness and trait anxiety were replicated in Study 2, and observers' perceptions of state anxiety matched individuals' self-reports: Defensive individuals with maximal differences between high and low state anxiety were seen as more anxious in high state anxiety, while defensive individuals with minimal differences between high and low state anxiety were regarded as less anxious in high state anxiety.     

Attentional bias to threat: Roles of trait anxiety, stressful events, and awareness

Attentional biases for threat stimuli were assessed in high and low trait anxious subjects (n = 66) using a probe detection task. To examine the effects of trait anxiety and situational stressors, each subject was tested three times: Under no stress, laboratory-induced stress, and examination-induced stress. To evaluate the role of awareness, half the word stimuli were presented very briefly (14 msec) and masked, and the other half were presented for 500 msec without a mask. Results showed that high trait anxious subjects under exam stress showed an attentional bias towards unmasked threat stimuli compared with low trait subjects. This effect was not found under lab-induced stress, suggesting that the attentional bias for unmasked threat in high trait subjects may be a function of a prolonged stressor, rather than a transient increase in state anxiety. The results from the masked exposure condition were not predicted; high trait anxious subjects shifted attention towards the spatial location of threat words despite lack of awareness of their lexical content, but this bias was only apparent in the no-stress condition. The results are discussed in relation to recent cognitive theories of anxiety.     

Trait congruence in the study of the cognitive consequences of emotional arousal

This study investigated the possible influence of mood and emotional vulnerability on recall. Mood was induced by projecting highly emotionally laden slides. In the first experiment, 64 female subjects, rated low or high on emotional vulnerability, were tested on recall of mood-congruent, mood-incongruent and neutral words, under mood induction and non-mood induction conditions. Emotionally low-vulnerable subjects recalled more mood-congruent than mood-incongruent words in the mood induction condition, whereas the opposite was the case in the non-mood induction condition. Highly vulnerable subjects recalled more mood-congruent than mood-incongruent words in the non-mood induction condition and fewer mood-congruent words in the mood induction compared with non-mood induction condition. The results are discussed in terms of ‘mood congruence’ (to explain low-vulnerable (LV) subjects' performance) and in terms of ‘trait congruence’ (to explain highly-vulnerable (HV) subjects' performance). In a second experiment, which investigated LV and HV subjects' galvanic skin responses to highly- and low-emotionally laden slides, the highest values were those for HV subjects when exposed to emotional slides. The different activation of LV and HV subjects led us to reconsider previous reasoning regarding mood congruence and trait congruence in the light of the inverted U theory.     

Self‐esteem as a monitor of fundamental psychological need satisfaction

Researchers have long theorized about the function of self‐esteem. Theories such as sociometer, terror management, and self‐determination have each received substantial empirical support, but all purport a different function of self‐esteem. Despite each theory's persuasiveness, they are sometimes at odds, and there remains no clear consensus regarding the function of self‐esteem. In the present paper, we propose the notion that self‐esteem monitors the meeting of multiple fundamental psychological needs, a theory we call the Need‐Satisfaction Framework of self‐esteem. We outline existing empirical support for our theory in the context of three well‐documented fundamental needs: belonging, self‐determination (i.e.,autonomy and competence), and meaning. Across all three needs, we review converging evidence supporting two hypotheses for self‐esteem's need‐monitoring function: (1) threats to needs lower self‐esteem and (2) high self‐esteem buffers defensive responses to need threats. We expand on established theoretical and empirical work in the domain of self‐esteem and also discuss testable future hypotheses.     

The action–trait theory of motivation: A commentary on Roy F. Baumeister’s 2014 address to the Society for the Study of Motivation

Roy F. Baumeister’s 2014 presidential address to the Society for the Study of Motivation was a call to motivation scientists to address the lack of a grand theory of motivation and to encourage them to begin working on one. This commentary addresses some of the requirements of such a theory and discusses the relatively new action–trait theory of motivation as a viable candidate for such a grand theory of motivation. Action–trait theory is based on historic “purposive psychology” and incorporates the methods of individual differences psychology. It can be represented in eight falsifiable hypotheses, three of which have already received empirical support.     

Effects of anger management and goal setting group interventions on state-trait anger and self-efficacy beliefs among high risk adolescents

In this study we evaluated the effects of two psychoeducational groups (anger management and goal setting) on state and trait anger, anger expression, and on self-efficacy beliefs of high risk adolescents enrolled in an alternative high school. Participants (n = 57) were pre- and post-tested using the State Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) with subscales for (a) state anger, (b) trait anger, and (c) anger expression, and on a measure of self-efficacy related to (a) anger management, (b) goal setting, and (c) group behavior and interpersonal communication. We hypothesized that each treatment would favorably impact the self-efficacy items related to it, that participants in both treatment groups would show gains in self-efficacy for general group behavior and communication skills, and that the anger management treatment would decrease state anger and anger expression. Results of a series of Repeated Measures ANOVAS revealed no group effects or group by time interaction effects. Analysis of Cohen's d effect sizes for the treatment groups in comparison with the control condition indicated only small treatment effects for the goal setting group on the STAXI, and small, negative treatment effects for the anger management group on the STAXI and on state anger. Thus, results failed to support the hypotheses with the current data set. Limitations of this study and implications for future research and group practice within schools are discussed. The authors thank Ellen Hawley McWhirter, Greg Sandstrom, and the administration, faculty, and students of the participating “alternative high school” for their help and support.     

Silenced by Betrayal: The Path from Childhood Trauma to Diminished Sexual Communication in Adulthood

Betrayal traumas (Freyd, 1996), abuses that violate trust or dependency, predict numerous negative outcomes, including dissociation and revictimization (DePrince & Freyd, 2007; Gobin & Freyd, 2009; Goldsmith, Freyd, & DePrince, 2012). No previous empirical research examines the relation between betrayal and sexual health, including dissociation during sex. This article addresses this gap with 2 studies, which provide support for a multiple mediation model where high betrayal in childhood predicts worsened sexual communication in adulthood through trait dissociation and sexual dissociation in serial. In both studies, the direct path between betrayal and sexual communication was nonsignificant; only when accounting for trait dissociation overall and sexual dissociation in particular does childhood betrayal predict diminished communication with sex partners in adulthood.     

Decision Making Versus Decision Implementation: An Action Control Approach to Exercise Adoption and Adherence1

Two studies were conducted, one involving adoption of an exercise program and the other involving adherence to an aerobics exercise program. Consistent with action control theory, it was hypothesized that (a) subjective expected utility theory would predict exercise intentions but not exercise behavior in each study; (b) exercise adoption (Study 1) and attendance at an aerobics class (Study 2) would be predictable from the intentions regarding these behaviors expressed by action-oriented but not state-oriented subjects; and (c) subjects who had engaged in planning in regard to exercising would be more likely to adopt an exercise program (Study 1) and would exercise more frequently (Study 2). The findings provide some support for all three hypotheses. Implications of this research are discussed in regard to the distinction between decision making and decision implementation or action control; the relative usefulness of an action-control versus an expectancy-value approach for behavior involving complex decision implementation over a long period of time; the value of action orientation as a moderator of intention-behavior relationships; and the role of planning in exercise behavior.     

Effects of anger management and goal setting group interventions on state-trait anger and self-efficacy beliefs among high risk adolescents

In this study we evaluated the effects of two psychoeducational groups (anger management and goal setting) on state and trait anger, anger expression, and on self-efficacy beliefs of high risk adolescents enrolled in an alternative high school. Participants (n = 57) were pre- and post-tested using the State Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) with subscales for (a) state anger, (b) trait anger, and (c) anger expression, and on a measure of self-efficacy related to (a) anger management, (b) goal setting, and (c) group behavior and interpersonal communication. We hypothesized that each treatment would favorably impact the self-efficacy items related to it, that participants in both treatment groups would show gains in self-efficacy for general group behavior and communication skills, and that the anger management treatment would decrease state anger and anger expression. Results of a series of Repeated Measures ANOVAS revealed no group effects or group by time interaction effects. Analysis of Cohen's d effect sizes for the treatment groups in comparison with the control condition indicated only small treatment effects for the goal setting group on the STAXI, and small, negative treatment effects for the anger management group on the STAXI and on state anger. Thus, results failed to support the hypotheses with the current data set. Limitations of this study and implications for future research and group practice within schools are discussed. The authors thank Ellen Hawley McWhirter, Greg Sandstrom, and the administration, faculty, and students of the participating “alternative high school” for their help and support.     

高低特质攻击个体对威胁面部表情识别的差异研究——来自ERP的证据

为揭示高特质攻击个体对愤怒、恐惧威胁面部表情识别的特点及其电生理机制，本研究采用Buss-Perry攻击问卷选取高低特质攻击个体26名和27名为被试，采用面孔识别范式对高低特质攻击个体识别威胁面部表情时的ERP差异进行研究。结果发现，在愤怒、恐惧表情上，高特质攻击组在N170成分的潜伏期都显著短于低特质攻击组；在愤怒、恐惧表情上，高特质攻击组在P200成分的波幅都显著高于低特质攻击组。这表明高特质攻击个体对愤怒、恐惧威胁面部表情的识别具有高度敏感性，这种敏感性体现在面部表情识别的早期和中期阶段，而非晚期阶段，即高特质攻击个体在早期的前注意阶段就对愤怒、恐惧威胁面部表情进行优先注意；在中期的注意阶段，高特质攻击个体可以很好地确认愤怒、恐惧威胁面部表情。     

Self‐Report and Psychophysiological Responses to Fear Appeals

This study was designed to assess the relationship between self‐report and psychophysiological responses to fear appeals and behavioral changes elicited by these. Ninety‐two subjects watched one of four messages that varied in level of threat (high vs. low) and efficacy (high vs. low). Concomitantly, psychophysiological measures (heart rate and skin conductance) were registered. Perceived threat and efficacy varied according to the characteristics of the message. High‐threat messages elicited significantly different levels of autonomic arousal than low‐threat messages. Following of behavioral recommendation was higher among subjects who were exposed to the high threat / high efficacy stimulus, those who reported high perceived threat, and for those who showed an autonomic response pattern related to the facilitation of attentional processes.     

Relationship of testosterone to men's family functioning at mid-life: A research note

Sociobiological theory suggests that aggression coupled with altruism is highly adaptive for males in all social systems, including the family, whereas sex-role convergence theory indicates that lower levels of aggression are most adaptive for men, particularly at mid-life. The purpose of this study was to determine the role that testosterone, as a proxy for aggression, plays as an adaptive mechanism in the lives of middle-aged males. The sample used in this study consisted of 37 middle-aged (39–50 years of age) males employed in professional occupations in a midwestern metropolitan area. Testosterone levels were regressed on factors typically found to be related to male satisfaction with family life at mid-life: marital satisfaction, parent-adolescent communication, amount of emotional expressiveness, and androgynous characteristics; recent positive and negative stressors and trait anxiety were statistically controlled. Results of step-wise multiple regression analysis indicated that low levels of testosterone were significantly (R = .34, P < .01) related to enhanced marital and parental relationships and androgynous behaviors; however, emotional expressiveness was significantly related to high levels of testosterone.     

Influence of family communication structure and vanity trait on consumption behavior: a case study of adolescent students in Taiwan

The purpose of this research was to study the relationship between family communication structure, vanity trait, and related consumption behavior. The study used an empirical method with adolescent students from the northern part of Taiwan as the subjects. Multiple statistical methods and the SEM model were used for testing the hypotheses. The major findings were: (1) Socio-orientation has a significant effect on how physical appearance is viewed, and concept-orientation has a significant positive effect on achievement vanity. (2) how physical appearance is viewed has a significant positive effect on all dimensions of materialism, concerns about clothing, and use of cosmetics. (3) Achievement vanity has a significant positive relationship with price-based prestige sensitivity and concerns regarding clothing. The findings have implications for marketing theory as well as for practical applications in marketing.