Perceptions of Sexual Intent: The Impact of Condom Possession

This study examined whether knowing that a victim of a sexual assault was carrying a condom influenced perceptions of her sexual intention and subsequent judgments of the sexual assault. Participants  ( N = 165)  read a vignette describing a date that culminated in an alleged sexual assault. Condom possession (carrying a condom, not carrying a condom) of both the female and male target was systematically varied. When the woman was carrying a condom, the woman was perceived as more sexually willing and the sexual assault claim perceived as less valid. In contrast, the male target's condom possession had little impact on judgments.     

Effects of Victim Sex and Sexual Orientation on Perceptions of Rape

The relationship of sex, gender role attitudes, and sexual orientation to blame attributed to rape victims by 168 male and 220 female undergraduates was examined. Participants responded to a scenario that depicted the rape of a heterosexual male or female, a gay male, or a lesbian and completed the Case Reaction Questionnaire, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale—Short Form, the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale—Short Form, and the Male Role Norm Scale. Men assigned more blame to victims than did women, and they assigned greater blame to male than to female victims. Traditional gender role attitudes were positively related to victim blame and to more negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians, which in turn, was related to more blame being assigned to homosexual victims.     

Sexual Intent Perceptions: The Role of Perceiver Experience and the Real‐Person Reduction1

What factors influence the amount of sexual intention accorded to a person's behavior? A perceiver's gender and personal experiences, and the nature of the relationship with the perceived were investigated. Two findings emerged. First, perceiver sexual and dating experiences predicted perceptions in addition to and independent of perceiver gender, but only for a “self” target. Second, hypothetical targets were perceived more sexually relative to targets that represented real people. These findings extended previous research suggesting that features of targets and perceivers in addition to gender are predictive of sexual perceptions. These target features (e.g., “self” vs. other, “real” vs. hypothetical) have distinct influences on sexual perceptions, suggesting that the choice of a target in research studies should be considered carefully.     

Sex Bias at Work: The Effects of Attentional and Memory Demands on Performance Ratings of Men and Women1

The present study examined the impact of attentional and memory demands on work performance ratings accorded men and women in traditionally male jobs. Of interest was whether sex discrimination would abate in the face of individuating and job-relevant work behavior even when the demands likely to be faced in actual work settings were taken into account. Two hundred and two subjects read a vignette depicting the work behavior of a male or female police officer and then rated the individual's work performance. The attentional demands imposed on subjects while reading the vignette and the amount of time elapsed prior to issuing the performance ratings were systematically varied. As predicted, men were evaluated more favorably than women when raters were faced with an additional task requiring attention and time pressures were made salient. Only when subjects were able to carefully allocate all of their attentional resources did sex bias in work performance ratings abate. Memory demands had no effects on work performance ratings. Gender-related work characterizations paralleled the performance ratings, providing support for the idea that sex stereotypes mediate discrimination in performance appraisal judgments. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings, as well as suggestions for future research, are discussed.     

The Effects of Training on Perceptions of Sexual Harassment Allegations

This study of 176 college juniors examined the effects of respondent gender and sexual harassment training on the perceptions of what constitutes sexual harassment in the workplace. Variation in these perceptions, due to severity of the sexually oriented behavior, was also examined. Regardless of the subject's gender, individuals who 6 weeks earlier had seen a training film about sexual harassment rated severe sexually oriented work behaviors as more harassing than did individuals who had not seen the film. Additionally, males who had not seen the film rated ambiguous sexually oriented behaviors as less harassing than did males and females who had seen the film, and as less harassing than females who had not seen the film. Implications for the importance of training in addressing sexual harassment are discussed.     

Effects of Social Cues,Task Complexity,and Sex on Intrinsic Motivation and Task Perceptions: A Test of the Task-Instrumentality Hypothesis

This study investigated the interaction of task complexity, social cues, and sex on measures of intrinsic motivation and task perceptions. Social cues were in the form of co-worker statements regarding their preference for intrinsic or extrinsic task outcomes. It was predicted that to the extent the task was instrumental in meeting subjects' expectations (motivational orientation) evoked by the co-worker cue, higher levels of satisfaction, if not intrinsic motivation, would be present. This was called the task-instrumentality hypothesis. To assess sex effects related to the possibility that women may react differently to the task and co-worker cues, sex was included as a factor in the design. The design was a 2 (Cue: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic) x 2 (Task: Simple vs. Complex) x 2 Sex: (Male vs. Female Subjects) factorial design. Subjects were 81 undergraduate students. The results indicate that for the behavioral measures of intrinsic motivation the instrumentality hypothesis was supported for men only, as evidenced by a significant three-way interaction. In addition, exploratory analyses were also conducted. The results are discussed from a motivational-orientations perspective.     

Some Effects of Brief Training Interventions on Perceptions of Sexual Harassment1

In 2 experiments, college undergraduates received brief sexual harassment training or were assigned to a control group; all participants then judged whether sexual harassment occurred in brief written scenarios which had been evaluated previously by experts. In the first study, training increased the tendency to perceive sexual harassment but did not enhance expertise. In the second experiment, training significantly increased perceptual expertise for men but not for women—thereby eliminating a gender difference which has been consistently reported in the sexual harassment literature. These are the first experimental demonstrations that training can influence perceptions of sexual harassment in a laboratory setting; whether training can measurably affect the perception, reporting, or incidence of sexual harassment in real life is not yet known.     

Equity and Self-Interest: Effects on Perceptions of Intent,Liking, and Desire to Reciprocate

In two experiments subjects were given information about how one person in a dyadic interaction had allocated outcomes to self and the other participant. The interaction was depicted as competitive in Experiment 1 and noncompetitive in Experiment 2. Subjects made judgments about the allocator's intentions and the recipient's liking for the allocator and desire to reciprocate outcome distribution. Subjects were instructed to respond toward the recipient in either an objective or empathic manner. Subjects logically utilized disparity in outcome distribution in determining the allocator's intent to benefit him/herself. Overall, equitable distributions led to the highest judgments of recipient liking; as inequity increased, ratings about liking decreased. However, empathic subjects in Experiment 2 showed different patterns of rated recipient liking as a function of the direction of the inequity. Judgments about intent to reciprocate were also affected by the orientation of the observer. The results were discussed with particular reference to differential thresholds for advantageous versus disadvantageous inequity. In addition, mathematical models describing the dependent measures were derived and validated, providing results consistent with past research utilizing ratio models of judgment within the context of equity theory.     

Why Women Take Fewer Risk Than Men Do: The Mediating Role of State Anxiety

Gender studies have showed that women take fewer risks than men do. Previous research has also provided evidence for a link between negative affect (anxiety and depressive mood) and risk-taking. Little is known about the relationships among these factors. We examined the role of state anxiety in the relationship between gender and risk-taking. Fully 149 undergraduate students filled out the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and the Beck Depression Inventory–II (BDI) before playing the hot version of the Columbia Card Task (hot CCT), which is designed to measure emotionally based risk-taking behavior. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that gender and state anxiety were associated with risk-taking even when controlling for age, depressive mood, and trait anxiety. Moreover, results pointed out that gender is related to risk-taking through state anxiety. These results offer insights into gender research, as well as affective and decision science. Implications for future studies and applied interventions are discussed.     

Lazos que Atan: The Influence of Normative Gender Beliefs on Sexual Risk Behaviors of Latino Men and Women

Not all Latino men and women conform to proscribed gender roles. Nonetheless, their sexual risk taking may well be influenced by traditional beliefs concerning these roles. We explored the relationship between gender beliefs that are normative in Latino culture, and the sexual risk behaviors of 152 Latino men and women who participated in a behavioral rapid needs assessment survey in Houston, TX. Path—analytic results indicate that normative gender beliefs are influenced by respondents' sex and their levels of acculturation and that these 2 variables influence sexual risk behaviors, including unprotected sex and multi partnerism. Our results suggest that beliefs about gender influence sexual behavior and, therefore, are an important factor that should be considered in understanding sexual risk taking among Latinos.     

The Power of Prestige: Why Young Men Report Having more Sex Partners than Young Women

In a survey of 48 men and 61 women from a southwestern US college, the gender difference in reported number of sex partners was mediated by the degree to which individuals felt that men and women who had many sexual partners were prestigious. In addition, men cared about the quantity and quality of their sex partners more than women did and these two factors were also related to reported number of sexual partners. The gender difference in reported sex partners is not veridical; it can be accounted for with attitudinal measures related to status and sex that are more common in men than women. Results are discussed in terms of understanding biased reporting in young American men and women.     

The Effects of Delayed Report and Motive for Reporting on Perceptions of Sexual Harassment

We examined whether the timing of the report and the victim's apparent motive for reporting influences women's and men's perceptions of sexual harassment. Undergraduates (153 women, 149 men) listened to 1 of 6 versions of audiotaped testimony of the victim and defendant. The report was filed either immediately or 18 months later, and motive either was presented as altruistic, retaliatory, or was not specified. Participants chose a verdict, rated the defendant's guilt, and rated the defendant and victim on several dimensions. Higher guilt ratings, more positive evaluations of the victim, and more negative evaluations of the defendant were associated with immediate reporting and an altruistic motive, although women weighed these factors more heavily than did men.     

The Effect of the Sexual Composition of a Group on Discrimination Against Women and Sex-Role Attitudes

This study examined discrimination against women and endorsement of sex-role attitudes as a function of sex composition of group and sex of subject. Undergraduates (116 female and 55 male) were placed in mixed-sex or all-women groups and administered a modification of the journal articles used by Goldberg (1968) and a Sex-Role Attitude Questionnaire developed by the author. Both females and males in the mixed-sex groups evaluated the female-authored articles less favorably than the identical male-authored articles. In contrast, subjects in the all-women groups did not show sex discrimination in their evaluations. Sex-typed appropriateness of the article topics was not an important variable mediating the devaluation of the female-authored articles. Female subjects in mixed-sex groups endorsed more profeminist ideas on the Sex-Role Attitude Questionnaire than did male subjects, and there was a nonsignificant trend for women in the all-women groups after reading female-authored articles to endorse more profeminist ideas than did the women in the mixed-sex groups or in the all-women groups after reading male-authored articles. Results suggest that participation in an all-women's group may elicit a more positive image of other women and contribute to more egalitarian perceptions and behaviors.     

Dual Marginality: The Impact of Auditory Status and Sexual Orientation on Abuse in a College Sample of Women and Men

This exploratory study examined the relationship between the combination of auditory status and sexual orientation, and experiencing interpersonal violence, as measured by sexual, physical, and psychological abuse. A cross-sectional examination of 1,023 undergraduate students including 222 Deaf and hard-of-hearing students provided the data. Findings revealed that gay, lesbian, and bisexual students who also were Deaf or hard of hearing were more likely to experience sexual, physical, and psychological abuse than those in mainstream majority groups. The combination of auditory minority with sexual minority status for students had the strongest effect for physical and psychological abuse. Implications for policy and future research are provided.     

Antecedents of Physical and Sexual Victimization Among Homeless Women: A Comparison to Homeless Men

Homeless women experience extensive health risks including physical and sexual victimization. Few studies that have gathered information on homeless persons have reported results separately for women or have compared them directly with men. Research that both investigates antecedents of victimization among homeless women and compares them to those for men is necessary to determine whether prevention efforts must be different for each group. We investigated potential antecedents of recent (past 30 days) physical and sexual victimization in a probability sample of 394 homeless women and compared findings to those for 1159 homeless men. As hypothesized, mental disorder, substance dependence, and engaging in economic survival strategies significantly predicted victimization among homeless women. With few dissimilarities, these characteristics also predicted victimization among homeless men. Although differences in the needs and experiences of homeless women and men must be recognized, both women and men require assistance to establish and maintain safe residences, treatment of any substance use and mental disorder, and alternatives to economic survival strategies that place them at risk for victimization.     

Biggest Isn't Always Best: The Effect of Breast Size on Perceptions of Women1

Research has demonstrated preferences for medium and large breasts and a tendency to associate positive attributes with larger breasts. Findings have been limited, however, by use of stimuli that do not depict women realistically or in a credible context. In the current study, a female actor's breast size was manipulated to create four videotapes (bra cup sizes A, B, C, and D) in which she delivered a speech. Participants viewed one of the four videotapes and rated the actor on social and professional characteristics. Males perceived the actor more favorably on both professional and social characteristics when she had a medium breast size, whereas females were generally not influenced by breast size. Findings are related to the popularity of methods to enhance breast size and the need for awareness of the potential impact of breast size on how women are perceived.     

Sexual Orientation Bias Toward Gay Men and Lesbian Women: Modern Homonegative Attitudes and Their Association With Discriminatory Behavioral Intentions1

Two studies examined modern homonegative attitudes among nonstudents. In Study 1, participants completed the Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS; Morrison & Morrison, 2002 ) and other measures. Results indicated that MHS scores correlated positively with neoracism, neosexism, and the Protestant work ethic, and negatively with humanitarianism–egalitarianism. Gender differences were found and, irrespective of participant sex, greater modern homonegativity was directed toward gay, rather than lesbian targets. Study 2 extended research in the realm of modern homonegativity by investigating the linkage between modern homonegative attitudes and behavioral intentions in a sample of 196 community participants. As expected, modern homonegativity predicted discriminatory behavioral intentions toward a gay, but not a straight mayoralty candidate. Applications of these findings and future research directions are discussed.     

Helping on the Highway: The Effects of Dependency and Sex1

A series of three naturalistic field experiments are reported which investigated the norm of social responsibility by examining the effects of dependency and sex on helping. Experiment I examined the effect of physical disability on the likelihood of passing motorists helping with a flat tire. Females were helped significantly more than males, but the dependency manipulation was only minimally effective. In Experiment II the same disability cues were used in a hitchhiking context. Again females were helped significantly more than males, but surprisingly the dependency cues significantly reduced the number of ride offers. Experiment III used hitchhiking as the behavior of interest, but this time the dependency cues involved a disabled vehicle. This dependency manipulation significantly increased help offers. In addition, females were again helped significantly more than males. In all three experiments, almost all help offers were made by males. Other variables that appeared to influence helping rates were the perceived cost of helping, the attractiveness of the solicitors, and whether they were seen as responsible for their state of dependency. The present field results complemented previous laboratory work on the Same variables.     

The Effects of Sex and Power Schemas,Attitudes Toward Women,and Victim Resistance on Rape Attributions1

This study examined the effects of attitudes toward women, rape schemas, and victim resistance on rape attributions in a hypothetical rape scenario. One hundred twenty-eight female subjects participated in the investigation. In line with the hypotheses, a 2 × 2 × 2 (Traditional vs. Nontraditional Attitudes × Sex vs. Power Schemas × Presence vs. Absence of Resistance) ANOVA demonstrated a significant interaction effect between rape schemas and victim resistance for rape attributions. As predicted, those who held sex schemas of rape attributed less fault and responsibility to resisting, compared to nonresisting, victims. In addition, they attributed more fault and responsibility to the nonresisting victim than did those who held power schemas. Rape schemas and victim resistance exerted an interactive influence on perpetrator attributions. Although attitudes toward women did not affect victim attributions, traditional women attributed less fault and responsibility to perpetrators than did nontraditional women.