Effects of Interruptions on Consumer Online Decision Processes

The growth of e‐commerce and its attendant new technology features has increased interactivity in consumer information processing and decision‐making processes. The pull and push of information can be both more personalized and more commonly used. The ease of pushing information may lead to interruptions in consumer information processing that are more pronounced than those experienced in non‐Internet environments. Our study investigated the impact of interruption frequency, timing, and content and the moderating effects of consumer knowledge, control, and goal type on time spent on the decision task as well as satisfaction with the decision process and the choice. Our results show that the right configuration of interruptions may lead to increased online viewing time, whereas ill‐designed interruptions may be detrimental.     

Attributions for Performance on Luck and Skill Tasks: Effects of Outcome,Sex of Performer,and Sex of Subject

Attributions for and evaluations of a stimulus persons's preformance were assessed as a function of the sex of the stimulus person, sex of the observer, type of task (luck or skill), and outcomes (success or failure). An interaction between type of task and sex of stimulus person was expected, with observers expecting males to perform better than females on the skill task because of ability, and females to perform better than males on the luck task because of task ease. The results provided partial support for the predicted interaction. Task difficulty was more relevant for females on the luck task than for males. Effort was rated as more important for females than for males when the success was on the skill task. All of the ratings were influenced by the task-type manipulation.     

Predicting Safer Sex Practices: The Interactive Role of Partner Cooperation and Cognitive Factors

This study integrates aspects of cognitive and social contextual approaches to understanding the practice of safer sex. Study participants were 398 unmarried college students attending one of two institutions of higher education in Texas. As predicted, individuals who perceived more cooperation from their sexual partner to practice safer sex were significantly more likely to do so than those who saw their partners as uncooperative. Especially important, as predicted, partner cooperation also moderated the relationship between cognitive and behavioral predictors and safer sex. These moderation findings demonstrate that partner cooperation limits the range of operation of psychological factors that have been shown in previous research to play a significant role in deciding to practice safer sex.     

A Social Learning Perspective on Childhood Trauma and Same‐Sex Intimate Partner Violence

The family violence and childhood trauma literature has suggested that early adverse experiences create risk factors for intimate partner violence (IPV). Thus, this study used a sample of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) college students (N = 266) to explore differences among childhood trauma, same‐sex IPV, and IPV acceptance. The authors used survey methodology and multivariate analysis of variance. Results indicated that LGB individuals reporting childhood trauma also reported higher rates of IPV, suggesting implications for research and practice.     

Fears about Seeking Therapeutic Help: The Effect of Sex of Subject, Sex of Professional, and Title of Professional

96 subjects were asked to imagine that they had gone to their GP for help with an emotional problem. The subjects were further asked to imagine that the GP had referred them to either a male or female counsellor, clinical psychologist or psychiatrist. Whilst in role, subjects were asked to rate their concern about 15 possible fears of therapy, and to indicate their preference for a male or female therapist. There was little support for the hypothesis that female subjects would have lower fear ratings than male subjects. Equivocal support was found for the hypothesis that there would be an overall preference for female therapists. Results partially supported the hypothesis that fear ratings would be highest with respect to psychiatrists; the interaction of the sex of subject and the title of professional variables indicated that this was particularly so when the psychiatrist was female. The implications for counselling are briefly discussed, with regard to preparing clients for therapy.     

The Effect of Anticipated Service Interruptions on Disaster Preparedness Intentions1

This study examined the effects of anticipated service interruptions on natural disaster preparedness intentions. In a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial experiment, students were exposed to scenarios with varied levels of anticipated basic service interruption (no mention, low, high), and person‐relative‐to event (PrE) factors shown to affect preparedness (low, high), across 2 types of disaster (earthquake, flood). Results indicated no main or interaction effects related to type of natural disasters, significant main effects for levels of PrE and service interruption, and a significant PrE × Service Interruption interaction. Anticipated service interruption affected preparedness, regardless of level of PrE. Bringing service interruption into awareness increases willingness to prepare, suggesting that public‐health efforts should include messages regarding potential interruption of services.     

Helping on the Highway: The Effects of Dependency and Sex1

A series of three naturalistic field experiments are reported which investigated the norm of social responsibility by examining the effects of dependency and sex on helping. Experiment I examined the effect of physical disability on the likelihood of passing motorists helping with a flat tire. Females were helped significantly more than males, but the dependency manipulation was only minimally effective. In Experiment II the same disability cues were used in a hitchhiking context. Again females were helped significantly more than males, but surprisingly the dependency cues significantly reduced the number of ride offers. Experiment III used hitchhiking as the behavior of interest, but this time the dependency cues involved a disabled vehicle. This dependency manipulation significantly increased help offers. In addition, females were again helped significantly more than males. In all three experiments, almost all help offers were made by males. Other variables that appeared to influence helping rates were the perceived cost of helping, the attractiveness of the solicitors, and whether they were seen as responsible for their state of dependency. The present field results complemented previous laboratory work on the Same variables.     

The Psychology of Health and Illness: The Mental Health and Physiological Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Women

Violence against women is a global public health problem with about one in three women experiencing either physical and or sexual intimate partner violence during their lifetime. Globally as many as 38% of homicides committed against women are by a male intimate partner. Violence against women may have negative effects on their mental, physical, and reproductive health (WHO fact sheet, 2016). Untreated individuals who have experienced violence or life-threatening situations may develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This disorder has the potential to be life-changing and cause negative psychological and medical issues (Rokach, Ahmed, & Patel, 2017). This potentially life-changing nature and consequence of violence affecting women world-wide deserves greater attention to ensure elimination of risk factors, financial support of investigational studies to promote detection of victims, and research to increase therapeutic efficacy of remediation. These efforts should be bolstered by all physicians, mental health experts, social service specialists, and public health advocates.     

Effects of Gender and Confrontation on Attributions of Female-Perpetrated Intimate Partner Violence

The present study examined the effects of perpetrator gender, victim confrontation, observer gender, and observer exposure to violence on attributions of blame and responsibility for partner violence. Data were collected from 728 college-aged students enrolled at two southeastern universities in the United States. Results demonstrated gendered biases among both male and female respondents. Men and women attributed less responsibility and blame to female perpetrators than male perpetrators, especially if the perpetrator was provoked. Moreover, exposure to violence was important for predicting attributions, and some of the evidence for observer effects were reduced to non-significance once these variables were added to the model.     

Effects of Potential Partners' Costume and Physical Attractiveness on Sexuality and Partner Selection

Male and female college students in the United States (N = 224) viewed models who had been prerated for physical attractiveness and who were dressed in costumes representing one of three levels of socioeconomic status (SES). Subjects reported their willingness to engage with these stimulus persons in six relationships involving various levels of marital potential and sexual involvement. Models' costume status had greater effects on female subjects' willingness than on male subjects' willingness to enter all six relationships. This difference was larger when the physical attractiveness of models was low than when it was high. Costume status also affected female subjects' ratings of male models' attractiveness but did not affect male subjects' ratings of female models' attractiveness. Results supported eight hypotheses derived from evolutionary theory: In choosing partners, men and women weighed potential partners' SES and physical attractiveness differently, and these factors may have different behavioral implications depending on the degree to which sexual relations, or marital potential, or both, are involved.     

The Effects of Intimacy and Target Sex on Direct Aggression: Further Evidence

The effects on aggression of target sex and relationship with the target were investigated using self‐report data. One hundred and seventy‐four participants (115 female) reported on acts of direct aggression in the last 2 years toward intimate partners, known and unknown same‐sex targets, and known and unknown opposite‐sex targets. Women's self‐reported aggression was higher toward partners than other targets, replicating previous findings regarding women's intimate partner aggression. Women's aggression was consistently higher toward same‐sex than opposite‐sex targets, but the effect of knowing the target was inconsistent. Men's self‐reported aggression was more frequent toward same‐sex than opposite‐sex targets—including intimate partners—and more frequent toward known than unknown targets. Results are discussed with reference to a partner‐specific reduction in women's fear, and sex differences in threshold for classifying someone as “known well.” Limitations of the present sample and suggestions for future work are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 38:272‐280, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effects of Visual Tasks and Conversational Partner on Personal and Interpersonal Postural Activity

The control of stance is influenced by activities that are engaged in during stance. We investigated simultaneous constraints imposed by individual-specific factors (such as the distance of visual targets) and of interpersonal factors arising from dyadic conversation. Each member of participant pairs looked at targets (drawings) that were similar to, but differed from, that of a conversational partner. Conversational partners conversed to identify the differing elements. In Experiments 1 and 2, members of each dyad conversed with each other or separately conversed with a confederate (an experimenter). We varied the distance of targets (Experiment 1) and their size (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, target size could be the same for both members of a dyad (i.e., small-small, large-large) or could differ (i.e., small-large, large-small). Interpersonal postural coordination was stronger when members of dyads conversed with each other, replicating earlier studies, but this manipulation also influenced parameters of individual sway. In Experiment 3, interpersonal postural coordination also was influenced by variation in the size of the partner's target. Analysis of the sway of individuals revealed influences of target distance and size, replicating previous effects; however, these manipulations also influenced interpersonal postural coordination. Overall, the results indicate that postural activity was modulated simultaneously with respect to individual and dyadic parameters of the task situation. We argue that it may be useful, both theoretically and empirically, to interpret the effects of conversation on postural activity within the broader context of relations between postural control and the performance of suprapostural tasks.     

The Effects of Sex,Status, and Ability on Helping Behavior1

Protests against affirmative action articulate the concern that qualified white males will be subordinated to less qualified women and minorities. To examine the possibility that the reversal of traditional status relationships rather than competence inequity underlies resistance to affiimative action, a study was conducted in which subjects interacted with a male or female who was introduced as their supervisor or subordinate and as either higher or lower in ability than themselves. The results indicate that status, not ability, influences the frequency of helping women, whereas ability, not status, primarily influences helping behavior toward men. Specifically. female subordinates were helped more than females supervisors, regardless of ability, while high-ability males elicited more help than low-ability males, independent of status. Subsequent ratings revealed that although subjects acknowledged the greater competence of high-ability males, they did not evaluate high-ability females as more competent than themselves.     

The Effects of Assertive Training on Sex Role Concept in Female Agoraphobics

Agoraphobia in women has often been associated with a restricted, "overly-feminine" sex role definition. We investigated whether assertiveness training from a female therapist would benefit agoraphobic women not only by teaching skills but incidentally by modeling a broader feminine gender role. Of 14 clients from an agoraphobic treatment program seven received assertiveness training as an adjunct to regular therapy. Sex role definition and assertiveness attitudes were measured with the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1974) and the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (Rathus, 1973), administered before and following a 7-week treatment period. All the agoraphobics initially had significantly lower Masculinity scores on the PAQ than did large normative samples. T-tests performed on the data indicated that the assertiveness group's Masculinity scores increased after treatment to the level of the normative samples, while the comparison group did not change. Results supported the clinical observation that many agoraphobic women have limited gender role definitions, and indicated that this limitation consists of a deficit of masculine traits rather than a surplus of feminine ones.     

老年夫妻的老化刻板印象对死亡焦虑的行动者效应和对象效应

目的：考察老年人的老化刻板印象对自身及配偶的死亡焦虑的影响。方法：145对老年夫妻完成老化印象量表和死亡焦虑量表,并运用行动者-对象互依模型进行数据分析。结果：（1）老化刻板印象和死亡焦虑在夫妻内部分别具有一致性;（2）老化刻板印象对自身死亡焦虑的行动者效应显著;（3）丈夫的积极老化刻板印象对妻子死亡焦虑的对象效应显著,妻子的消极老化刻板印象对丈夫死亡焦虑的对象效应显著。结论：老年人的老化刻板印象不仅影响自身而且影响配偶的死亡焦虑,但夫妻之间的影响存在性别差异。     

Effects of Administrator and Participant Sex and Ethnicity on Self-Disclosure

Self-disclosure patterns of Anglo-Americans and Mexican Americans were analyzed according to overall frequency of reported self-disclosure and preferred targets (i.e., mother, father, male friend, female friend). Administrator sex and ethnicity were systematically varied so that the interaction of these variables with participant sex and ethnicity could be investigated. Results revealed that Anglo-Americans reported the most disclosure and Mexican-American men the least. Some suggestions are provided for counselors working with Mexican-American men.     

The Effects of Partner Learning During Spelling for Students with Severe Disabilities and Their Peers

A multiple baseline across subjects design was used to examine the effects of partner learning on the spelling performance, academic responding, and competing behavior of three students with severe disabilities and three of their classmates without disabilities. The students were enrolled in different general elementary classes. All students in these classes were assigned to partner learning triads by the general education teacher. One triad in each class included the student with severe disabilities and two classmates without disabilities. All students in the class received two, 20 min partner learning sessions each week. During partner learning, each member of the triad was asked to spell words, present words to be spelled, provide feedback to the speller, and check the spelling accuracy. These roles were rotated among the members of the triad after each trial. These roles were adapted as necessary to accommodate the academic and communication skills of the students with severe disabilities. The effects of partner learning on spelling accuracy were assessed through weekly spelling tests. The effects of partner learning on academic responding and competing behavior were assessed using the MS-CISSAR (Carta, Greenwood, Schulte, Arreaga-Mayer, Terry, 1988). Results of weekly spelling indicated that partner learning led to improved spelling accuracy for students with severe disabilities and did not negatively affect the spelling accuracy of their peers. Partner learning also led to improved rates of academic responding and reduced rates of competing behavior for 5 of 6 students. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for practice and future research.     

Choice of Therapeutic Approaches as a Function of Sex of Subject, Type of Problem, and Sex and Title of Helper

A study was carried out using 96 subjects to discover how their preferences for four therapeutic approaches varied as a function of their sex, the type of problem they were asked to imagine they had (intimate or work/academic), and sex and title (counsellor or psychotherapist) of the professional from whom they would seek help. The four approaches used were: psychoanalytic therapy, cognitive-behavioural therapy, humanistic therapy, and a 'common-sense' approach consisting of responses typically given by non-professional helpers (e.g. friends and relatives). The results showed that the cognitive-behavioural approach was preferred overall, closely followed by the humanistic approach; the common-sense approach and psychoanalytic therapy were given the lowest ratings. However, interactions showed the picture to be more complex than this: women preferred female helpers, with men having no particular preferences; and the type of approach subjects preferred depended to some extent on the type of problem they had and the title of the helper consulted. The results suggest that counselling centres should be staffed with helpers of both sexes and differing theoretical backgrounds, so as to give clients as wide a choice of therapeutic help as possible.