The measurement of principled morality by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire

The four stages preceding the postconventional level in the Kohlberg (1958, 1971, 1976) system of moral development are described as involving moral judgments that conform to external conditions of punishment, reward, social expectation, and conformity to the law. No special level of self-control seems necessary to behave in keeping with these conditions of external reinforcement. In contrast, the two stages of postconventional (principled) mortality involve defiance of majority opinion and defiance of the law--actions that would seem to require greater self-control. This study was concerned with whether postconventional moral reasoning, as measured by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire (MDQ), can be associated with higher self-control. If so, prediction of principled moral behavior from the MDQ would be based not only on postconventional moral reasoning but bolstered by the necessary level of self-control as well. College students who came the closest to postconventional moral reasoning showed better self-control than college students who were more conventional or preconventional in their moral judgments. These results support the validity of the MDQ for predicting principled moral behavior.     

The Measurement of Principled Morality by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire

The four stages preceding the postconventional level in the Kohlberg (1958, 1971, 1976) system of moral development are described as involving moral judgments that conform to external conditions of punishment, reward, social expectation, and conformity to the law. No special level of self-control seems necessary to behave in keeping with these conditions of external reinforcement. In contrast, the two stages of postconventional (principled) morality involve defiance of majority opinion and defiance of the law-actions that would seem to require greater self-control. This study was concerned with whether postconventional moral reasoning, as measured by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire (MDQ), can be associated with higher self-control. If so, prediction of principled moral behavior from the MDQ would be based not only on postconventional moral reasoning but bolstered by the necessary level of self-control as well. College students who came the closest to postconventional moral reasoning showed better self-control than college students who were more conventional or preconventional in their moral judgments. These results support the validity of the MDQ for predicting principled moral behavior.     

君子不忧不惧：君子人格与心理健康——自我控制与真实性的链式中介

基于儒学经典命题提出君子人格通过自我控制与真实性的链式中介对心理健康产生正向效应的假设, 运用多种方法进行验证(总样本量为1169)。结果表明, 君子人格正向预测同时测量的心理健康(研究1)和6个月后测量的自尊、核心自我评价、情感平衡, 负向预测心理症状(研究4); 君子人格正向预测自我控制特质(研究1)和自我控制决策(研究3和研究4), 受到情境模拟操纵的自我控制提升心理健康与真实性(研究2), 受到回忆启动操纵的真实性提升心理健康(研究3); 链式中介作用也得到了同时和跨时间点测量、统计控制和实验控制等多方法结果的支持。君子人格水平较高的人, 更易自我控制, 由此感到自己的行为与真实自我更加一致与贯通, 因此具有更积极的心理状态。     

Psychometric Evaluation of the Timeline Followback for Exercise among College Students

OBJECTIVES: Two separate studies assessed the psychometric properties of a retrospective behavioral measure adapted for exercise called the Timeline Followback for Exercise (TLFB-E). Study one examined criterion, convergent, and predictive validity. Study two examined test-retest reliability. METHODS: Study one participants (N = 66) were college students 20.0 ± 1.4yr. Validity of frequency, intensity, time, and type (FITT) of exercise as assessed on the TLFB-E was examined using Pearson r correlations with accelerometers, weekly exercise contracts between participants and researchers, question four of the College Alumni Questionnaire, and a health-related physical fitness battery. Study two participants were a different sample (N = 40) of college students 18.63 ± 1.0yr. Pearson r correlations determined reliability of the TLFB-E for exercise frequency, intensity, and time between two interviews separated by one month. Kappa statistic determined reliability of the TLFB-E for type of exercise. RESULTS: The TLFB-E displayed evidence of criterion validity when compared to accelerometers (r = .35 to .39) and evidence of convergent validity when compared to weekly exercise contracts (r = .65 to .80) and question four of the College Alumni Questionnaire (r = .06 to .75). The TLFB-E displayed evidence of modest to adequate test-retest reliability (r = .79 to .97) for exercise frequency, intensity, and time and moderate Kappa (k = .49) for exercise type. CONCLUSIONS: The TLFB-E produces evidence of reliable and valid scores among college students and improves upon other self-report, retrospective questionnaires by enabling daily collection of exercise FITT over a specified time period.     

Self-control skills and negative emotional state: a focus on hostility

The self-control theory of psychopathology has contributed to the understanding and treatment of unipolar depression. This paper explores the relationship between self-control skills as measured by the Frequency of Self-reinforcement Questionnaire and other negative emotional states, with a focus on hostility. In Study 1, scores on the Brief Symptom Inventory were inversely related to self-control skills among a sample of 53 college students, suggesting potential generalizability of the theory. In Study 2, self-control skills were inversely related to hostility, anger, and aggression among a sample of 68 college students. The role of self-control skills in the regulation of hostility deserves further investigation.     

学前儿童自我控制行为家长评定问卷的编制及其结构验证

目的:编制学前儿童自我控制行为家长评定问卷并对其结构进行验证。方法:在理论分析和开放式问卷调查的基础上,编制了学前儿童自我控制行为家长评定问卷,并采用探索性因素分析与验证性因素分析相结合的方法,分别对263名和387名学前儿童的自我控制行为进行结构的探索与验证。结果:学前儿童自我控制行为由独立性、自觉性、坚持性、自制力和自我延迟满足五个维度构成;学前儿童自我控制行为问卷具有较好的信效度,其结构在不同性别、城乡样本中具有稳定性。结论:学前儿童自我控制行为是一个五因素的结构,所编制的问卷可作为学前儿童自我控制行为家长评定的工具。     

Guilty pleasures and grim necessities: affective attitudes in dilemmas of self-control

Do self-control situations pit controlled reason against impulsive emotion, or do some emotions support the controlled choice? A pilot study of self-control attitudes found ambivalence between hedonic affect associated with short-term perspectives and self-conscious affect associated with the long term. In Study 1, negative self-conscious affect accompanied higher self-control among delayed-cost dilemmas ("guilty pleasures") but not delayed-benefit dilemmas ("grim necessities"). Study 2 showed that hedonic affect was more accessible than was self-conscious affect, but this difference was less among high self-control dilemmas. In Study 3, unobtrusively primed self-conscious emotion words caused dieters to eat less if the emotions were negative, more if positive. Hedonic positive and negative emotion words had the opposite effect. Self-conscious emotional associations, then, can support self-control if brought to mind before the chance to act.     

The Regulatory Easy Street: Self-Regulation Below the Self-Control Threshold Does not Consume Regulatory Resources

We present and test a theory in which self-control is distinguished from broader acts of self-regulation when it is both effortful and conscious. In two studies, we examined whether acts of behavioral management that do not require effort are exempt from resource depletion. In Study 1, we found that a self-regulation task only reduced subsequent self-control for participants who had previously indicated that completing the task would require effort. In Study 2, we found that participants who completed a self-regulation task for two minutes did not evidence the subsequent impairment in self-control evident for participants who had completed the task for four or more minutes. Our results support the notion that self-regulation without effort falls below the self-control threshold and has different downstream consequences than self-control.     

Psychometric Properties of the Italian Version of the Psychological Capital Questionnaire

Two studies were conducted in order to investigate the psychometric properties of Italian version of the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ). Results from Study 1 (N = 401) provided support of the factorial validity of its four facets (self‐efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience), as well as of its composite factor measure. Results from Study 2 (N = 465) attested the measurement invariance of the PCQ across one year. Study 2 also explored the relationship between psychological capital, job satisfaction, work engagement, and job performance. Limitations and practical implications are discussed in the article.     

对运动成就目标三维模型的检验 ──一项对高水平乒乓球运动员的实证研究

Harwood等人（2000）对已应用于体育运动领域的任务-自我目标定向理论及其相关的测量工具提出了批判与质疑,并在此基础之上提出了运动成就目标三维模型,该模型将体育运动领域的成就目标分为三种,分别是纯任务目标;自我关联的自我目标;以及他人关联的自我目标。本研究的目的是对Harwood等人提出的运动成就目标三维模型进行检验。全文由两个子研究组成。研究一是成就目标问卷的发展与检验,对问卷的发展与信度、效度的检验进行了详细的介绍。研究二中,研究者采用所发展的成就目标问卷与录像访谈相结合的方法对4位（2男,2女）高水平乒乓球运动员的特质性目标以及赛前,赛中,赛后的状态性目标进行测评与检验。验证性因素分析的结果表明该运动成就目标问卷的三维模型拟合较好,三因素结构较为清晰。重测信度检验结果表明该问卷的三个维度均具有较高的重测信度。教练员对4名运动员成就目标的评估结果与运动员的问卷所得结果的一致性进一步支持了运动成就目标问卷的内部效度。对4名运动员的研究结果表明：（1）特质性目标对赛前状态性目标的预测主要与个人特点有关;（2）运动员在赛前与赛中状态性目标呈多元化趋势,既有只突出某一目标的单维现象,又有两种或三种目标同时占主导的多维现象;（3）运动员赛后状态性目标的变化倾向于受到比赛过程与结果的影响;（4）当运动员在比赛中经历重大挫折的时候,会有“亚目标”状态出现。本研究结果对Harwood等人的运动成就目标三维模型提供了支持。通过本研究,人们对高水平运动员的特质性目标及赛前、赛中、赛后状态性目标的性质及其变化有了更加深入的了解     

心理健康素质测评系统·中国成年人认知风格问卷的编制

通过对认知风格既往文献的回顾和分析,从临床心理学的角度将认知风格定义为个体在解释生活事件时所偏爱的和习惯化的特征性认知方式,并确定了4个维度：过度概括化、选择性提取、个体化和灾难化。通过开放式问卷调查、参考国内外已有量表、自编项目及专家评定,形成27个项目的认知风格问卷初测版,并分别在大学生样本和非学生样本中进行测试,筛选出在两个样本中都符合心理测量学要求的16个项目,最终形成认知风格问卷正式版。对认知风格问卷正式版进行心理测量学指标考察,结果发现问卷的内部一致性信度、重测信度、结构效度、内容效度、聚合效     

Reliability and validity of two widely-used worry questionnaires: self-report and self-peer convergence

The reliability and validity of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) and the Worry Domains Questionnaire (WDQ) were examined with self-ratings from a non-clinical sample of 148 students in a test-retest design across four weeks. Ratings from three well-acquainted peers were also obtained. With internal consistencies and test-retest correlations of at least 0.85, the present study confirmed the high reliability of the questionnaires. Moreover, both measures demonstrated substantial convergent validity: Average agreement among peers was 0.42 (PSWQ) and 0.47 (WDQ) and aggregated self-peer agreement was 0.55 (PSWQ) and 0.49 (WDQ). Self-peer agreement was not biased by social desirability. These findings challenge views that worry is an unreliable and unobservable phenomenon.     

A Meta-Analysis of the Convergent Validity of Self-Control Measures

There is extraordinary diversity in how the construct of self-control is operationalized in research studies. We meta-analytically examined evidence of convergent validity among executive function, delay of gratification, and self- and informant-report questionnaire measures of self-control. Overall, measures demonstrated moderate convergence (r_random = .27 [95% CI = .24, .30]; r_fixed = .34 [.33, .35], k = 282 samples, N = 33,564 participants), although there was substantial heterogeneity in the observed correlations. Correlations within and across types of self-control measures were strongest for informant-report questionnaires and weakest for executive function tasks. Questionnaires assessing sensation seeking impulses could be distinguished from questionnaires assessing processes of impulse regulation. We conclude that self-control is a coherent but multidimensional construct best assessed using multiple methods.     

Regulatory focus theory: Disentangling goals and strategies

The purpose of this research was to develop and test the Regulatory Goals and Strategies Questionnaire (RGSQ) to promote conceptual and empirical clarity in the literature on regulatory focus theory (RFT). According to RFT, construing an end-state as a maximal goal (ideal, gain, and advancement) elicits the adoption of an eager promotion-focused strategy, whereas construing an end-state as a minimal goal (ought, non-loss, and security) elicits the adoption of a vigilant prevention-focused strategy. This means that promotion-focused eagerness and prevention-focused vigilance can be elicited by various goals and that eager and vigilant strategies are in fact separate from goals. However, extant measurement instruments have not treated them as such. The RGSQ was developed to distinguish various maximal and minimal goals and to separate these goals from promotion- and prevention-focused strategies of eagerness and vigilance. Across three studies that combine six samples (total N = 1848), we examined the factor structure and nomological network of the RGSQ (Study 1: four samples of students and adults) and its predictive validity in a task context (Study 2) and working sample (Study 3). Overall, we found support for the RGSQ's validity and demonstrated that the RGSQ operationalizes regulatory focus in accordance with the theory's core assumptions.     

A tool for investigating the differential functions of aggressive behavior in the face-to-face and cyber context: Extending the Cyber-Aggression Typology Questionnaire

Aggressive behavior in the face-to-face and cyber contexts is driven by underlying aggression (i.e., functions of aggressive behavior). Common theories of aggression distinguish between reactive (e.g., rage) and proactive (e.g., seeking to achieve power and affiliation) aggression. However, according to the quadripartite violence typology, this distinction conflates aspects of motivational valence with self-regulatory processes. The Cyber-Aggression Typology Questionnaire (CATQ; Runions et al., 2017, Aggress Behav, 43(1), pp. 74–84) overcomes this weakness by identifying four types of cyber-aggression (impulsive-aversive/rage, controlled-aversive/revenge, controlled-appetitive/reward, and impulsive-appetitive/recreation cyber-aggression). However, the CATQ only considers aggression in cyberspace. We extended the CATQ to the face-to-face context by developing a corresponding Face-to-Face Aggression Typology Questionnaire (FATQ). The aim of this study was to investigate factorial and convergent validity and metric measurement invariance between four-factorial cyber and face-to-face aggression. In total, 587 students from six Austrian universities filled out the CATQ, the FATQ, and additional scales during regular university lectures to examine convergent validity. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the four-factor structure of both questionnaires, after excluding inconclusive items from the impulsive-aversive/rage subscale of the FATQ. These items were also removed from the CATQ to obtain two symmetric questionnaires. Metric measurement invariance between the CATQ and the FATQ was confirmed. Convergent validity was largely observed. Our results support an extended four-factor model of aggression. Having two parallel questionnaires, the FATQ and CATQ, enables future studies to investigate commonalities and differences in underlying drivers of aggressive behavior in the cyber and face-to-face contexts.     

The Driving Appraisal Inventory: Psychometric Characteristics and Construct Validity1

Four studies examined the dimensionality, reliability and construct validity of the Driving Appraisal Inventory (DAI), a self-report measure of driving habits and skills. In Study 1, analysis of 127 items led to the formation of four unidimensional, internally reliable scales: Carelessness, Drunken Driving, Vehicle Safety, and Self-Evaluation. In Study 2, all were found to have acceptable test-retest reliability. In Study 3, convergent validity support was obtained for the Carelessness and Vehicle Safety scales. In Study 4, concurrent criterion-related validity support was obtained for the Carelessness and Drunken Driving scales. Scores on the Self-Evaluation scale appear to be more a function of self-confidence and/or ego-involvement in driving skills and less a function of actual driving skills. Men score higher than women do on the Carelessness, Drunken Driving, and Self-Evaluation scales, and in Study 4, criterion-related validity of the Self-Evaluation scale was stronger among women than among men.     

Motivation for Creativity in Design Students

The purpose was to study motivation for creativity in design students in the framework of the cognitive orientation theory which defines motivation as a function of beliefs of four types (about goals, norms, oneself and reality) concerning themes identified as relevant for creativity. It was hypothesized that scores of the four belief types would enable predicting creativity. The participants were 52 design students who were administered an actual design task and questionnaires: The Survey about Attitudes, Questionnaire about Designing and the Cognitive Orientation of Creativity (COQ-CR). The independent variables were the scores of the belief types based on the COQ-CR. The dependent variables were the evaluation of the creativity of the designs by four expert architects, and various variables based on self-evaluation of the students in the questionnaires referring to the design and designing process: fluency, flexibility, elaboration, fulfilling requirements, considering the context, having a central idea, meaningfulness of the task, involvement of feelings in designing, and handling constraints. Regression analyses showed that the majority of variables referring to creativity were predicted significantly by the predictors. The findings support the validity of the COQ-CR for assessing motivation for creativity and of the cognitive motivational approach to creativity.     

The role of autobiographical memory networks in the experience of negative emotions: how our remembered past elicits our current feelings

The present research examined the role of autobiographical memory networks on negative emotional experiences. Results from 2 studies found support for an active but also discriminant role of autobiographical memories and their related networked memories on negative emotions. In addition, in line with self-determination theory, thwarting of the psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness was found to be the critical component of autobiographical memory affecting negative emotional experiences. Study 1 revealed that need thwarting in a specific autobiographical memory network related to the theme of loss was positively associated with depressive negative emotions, but not with other negative emotions. Study 2 showed within a prospective design a differential predictive validity between 2 autobiographical memory networks (an anger-related vs. a guilt-related memory) on situational anger reactivity with respect to unfair treatment. All of these results held after controlling for neuroticism (Studies 1 and 2), self-control (Study 2), and for the valence (Study 1) and emotions (Study 2) found in the measured autobiographical memory network. These findings highlight the ongoing emotional significance of representations of need thwarting in autobiographical memory networks.     

大学生情感倦怠研究

通过对116名大学生开放式问卷和523名大学生预测问卷的测试结果进行分析,编制出二维结构的大学生情感倦怠问卷.经过信、效度的检测及问卷的验证分析,表明该问卷可以作为测评大学生情感倦怠的有效工具.     

Developing of an English Version of the Aggressive Driving Behavior Test (AVIS). Improving the Construct Validity of Aggressive Driving

The research investigated the psychometric properties and the discriminant validity of the English version of the Questionnaire for the Assessment of Aggressive Driving Behavior (AVIS). Study 1 assessed the psychometric properties of the instrument. Internal consistency ranged from 0.77 to 0.92. Exploratory factor analysis did not support the original five factor structure, Instrumental Aggression and Acting Out being unified in a single factor. Following the confirmatory factor analysis a version with 26 items and 3 factors was obtained. Inter-scale correlations showed that the dimensions of the AVIS are inter-correlated. Study 2 verified the discriminant validity of the English version of the AVIS by testing the relationships between the AVIS dimensions and the DAX (Driving Anger Expression Inventory) dimensions. The results showed good discriminant validity, the dimensions of the two instruments being uncorrelated. In conclusion, the findings contribute to the development of the driving aggression construct by adding new dimensions to it.