Altruism and selfishness

Many situations in human life present choices between (a) narrowly preferred particular alternatives and (b) narrowly less preferred (or aversive) particular alternatives that nevertheless form part of highly preferred abstract behavioral patterns. Such alternatives characterize problems of self-control. For example, at any given moment, a person may accept alcoholic drinks yet also prefer being sober to being drunk over the next few days. Other situations present choices between (a) alternatives beneficial to an individual and (b) alternatives that are less beneficial (or harmful) to the individual that would nevertheless be beneficial if chosen by many individuals. Such alternatives characterize problems of social cooperation; choices of the latter alternative are generally considered to be altruistic. Altruism, like self-control, is a valuable temporally-extended pattern of behavior. Like self-control, altruism may be learned and maintained over an individual's lifetime. It needs no special inherited mechanism. Individual acts of altruism, each of which may be of no benefit (or of possible harm) to the actor, may nevertheless be beneficial when repeated over time. However, because each selfish decision is individually preferred to each altruistic decision, people can benefit from altruistic behavior only when they are committed to an altruistic pattern of acts and refuse to make decisions on a case-by-case basis.     

社会贴现:一种测量利他行为的新任务

社会贴现指的是人际交往过程中利他行为随着个人之间的社会距离增加而逐渐减少的现象。其研究任务首次将社会距离进行了量化,以个体愿意舍弃金额的数量换取他人获得定额的行为作为利他的标准。解释水平理论为社会贴现的内涵提供了理论基础,并解释了其内部机制。未来研究可以从自我结构的角度对社会贴现进行解释,也可以尝试使用社会支持相关的指标代替金钱,以避免金钱概念的启动所导致个体偏向自私的结论。     

New Evolutionary Perspectives on Altruism: Multilevel-Selection and Costly-Signaling Theories

Social psychological theories tend to be primarily concerned with the immediate causes of altruism, whereas evolutionary explanations focus more on the origins and ultimate functions of altruistic behavior. Recent developments in the evolutionary psychology of altruism promise an even richer understanding of this important category of social behaviors. Specifically, new perspectives offered by multilevel-selection theory and costly-signaling theory may help to shed light on some of the more problematic issues in the study of altruism.     

Critical self-reflection and self-perceived altruism: when self-reward fails

Social learning theory has produced a three-step model of prosocial development: In the young child, prosocial behavior is elicited by material rewards; in the older child, it is elicited also by social rewards; and in the morally mature adult, it is elicited by self-rewards based on an internalized perception of oneself as a kind, caring, altruistic individual. Self-perception theory has complicated this social learning model by demonstrating that once the third step is reached, the continued presence of material and social rewards may undermine intrinsic prosocial motivation based on self-rewards, producing moral regression. We propose a further complication. Critical self-reflection--the desire to know thyself, warts and all--may introduce a self-deprecating attributional bias that can undermine self-perceived altruism, even following helping for which one receives only intrinsic self-rewards. Two experiments are reported in which we manipulated critical self-reflection on one's reasons for helping. Results indicated that self-reflection undermined self-perceived altruism, especially when the salience of the self-rewards for helping was high. Experiment 2 also provided evidence that, as predicted, this self-reflection effect was most apparent for individuals who valued self-knowledge more highly than concern for others. Moral consequences of critical self-reflection are discussed.     

Altruistic behavior and cooperation: The role of intrinsic expectation when reputational information is incomplete

Altruistic behavior is known to be conditional on the level of altruism of others. However, people often have no information, or incomplete information, about the altruistic reputation of others, for example when the reputation was obtained in a different social or economic context. As a consequence, they have to estimate the other's altruistic intentions. Using an economic game, we showed that without reputational information people have intrinsic expectations about the altruistic behavior of others, which largely explained their own altruistic behavior. This implies that when no information is available, intrinsic expectations can be as powerful a driver of altruistic behavior as actual knowledge about other people's reputation. Two strategies appeared to co-exist in our study population: participants who expected others to be altruistic and acted even more altruistically themselves, while other participants had low expected altruism scores and acted even less altruistically than they expected others to do. We also found evidence that generosity in economic games translates into benefits for other social contexts: a reputation of financial generosity increased the attractiveness of partners in a social cooperative game. This result implies that in situations with incomplete information, the fitness effects of indirect reciprocity are cumulative across different social contexts.     

Beyond Pro-Social Behaviour: An Exploration of Altruism in Two Cultures

Altruism is primarily defined as behaviour aimed at benefiting others. Recent studies in evolutionary, social and positive psychology have highlighted that altruistic emotions and behaviours significantly contribute to wellbeing, happiness, health and longevity. However, few studies specifically focused on the concept of altruism, its experiential dimensions, cultural variants, meaning and related life domains. Hence, this study aims at exploring: a) how do people define altruism; b) perceived individual and social consequences of altruism; c) perceived difficulties in being altruistic; d) cultural influences on conceptions of altruism and related behaviours. The Altruism Questionnaire was specifically developed to address these issues. Qualitative data were collected among 119 adult participants (60 Indians and 59 Italians). Findings revealed that in both cultures altruism is perceived more than just as pro-social behaviour, emphasising it as human and social value along with its relational and psychological features. Improvement in relationships is reported as the most prominent benefit of being altruistic. Paradoxically, negative social evaluation such as criticism, isolation and misunderstanding is reported as the prominent difficulty. Influences of culture-specific factors were detected in the conceptualization and evaluation of altruism and altruistic behaviours, raising questions for assessment, intervention and further research.     

Sexually dimorphic preference for altruism in the opposite sex according to recipient

Sexual selection may affect human altruistic behaviour. Evolutionary psychology predicts that human mate preference reflects sexual selection. We investigated sex differences in preference for opposite‐sex altruism according to recipient because the reasons for altruistic behaviour differ according to the relationship between actor and recipient. We employed the Self‐Report Altruism Scale Distinguished by the Recipient, which was newly developed to evaluate altruism among Japanese undergraduates. We asked participants to evaluate preferences for each item based on the recipient of the altruistic behaviour (family members, friends or acquaintances, and strangers). Preference for opposite‐sex altruism differed according to recipient, gender of the participant, and relationship type, and several significant interactions were observed among these factors. We suggest that whereas women use a potential partner's altruism towards strangers as a costly signal of their resource‐holding potential when choosing a mate, they consider altruism towards family when they are in a long‐term relationship to ensure that resources are not allocated to non‐relatives.     

利他仅仅利他吗?——进化视角的双路径模型

利他对受助者及社会有弥足珍贵的价值,能提高群体的功能性,增加危机中的生存概率从而保持种群延续;但利他会降低助人者自身的适应性,使其生存与繁殖的可能性较其他个体,尤其是自利者,处于不利地位。利他行为是如何得到进化的这一难题吸引了各领域学者的关注。本文回顾了具有代表性的多水平选择理论与竞争性利他理论,结合利他研究的最新实证证据,提出利他增加助人者适应性的双路径模型。内部路径指利他行为可以通过自激励的内在过程,促进助人者身心的正性互动,带来内部效用增益,从而在某些时刻提高其适应性。外部路径为利他传递展现助人者品质的信号,有助于提升其群体内地位并增加合作、择偶机会。进而,利他行为能够在个体与群体层面的进化选择中得到保存。未来研究可以从身心关系的角度继续探讨利他问题,促成利他的正性循环。     

内隐和外显测量对利他行为的预测:来自IAT和BIAT的证据

利他行为是指人们自愿付出一定代价做出的有益于他人的行为。该研究以联结性-推理性评价模型为理论基础探讨内隐和外显测量对利他行为的预测效度,研究以193名大学生为被试,将4种内隐利他测量方法和1种外显利他测量方法相结合,以自发性水平不同的3种利他行为为结果变量。结果发现,IAT和BIAT的信度和效度较好,BIAT尤其值得采用。内隐利他自我概念测量能有效地预测真实情境中自发性较高的捐助行为,外显测量则预测了意识控制下自我报告的利他行为。结果表明,只有内隐利他自我概念测量能预测真实情境中快速发生的利他行为。其作用是外显利他测量和内隐利他态度测量所不能代替的。     

现实利他行为与网络利他行为对大学生主观幸福感的影响：多重中介模型

为探讨现实利他行为与网络利他行为对主观幸福感的影响,并着力考察现实社会支持、网络社会支持与自尊在其中所起的作用,以1064名在读大学生为被试进行问卷调查,研究结果显示：（1）现实利他行为和网络利他行为均能在一定程度上预测主观幸福感。（2）现实、网络社会支持和自尊是现实和网络利他行为对主观幸福感产生影响的两条并行中介路径。（3）现实和网络利他行为与现实和网络社会支持之间存在交互作用。     

Synchrony and the social tuning of compassion

Although evidence has suggested that synchronized movement can foster cooperation, the ability of synchrony to increase costly altruism and to operate as a function of emotional mechanisms remains unexplored. We predicted that synchrony, due to an ability to elicit low-level appraisals of similarity, would enhance a basic compassionate response toward victims of moral transgressions and thereby increase subsequent costly helping behavior on their behalf. Using a manipulation of rhythmic synchrony, we show that synchronous others are not only perceived to be more similar to oneself but also evoke more compassion and altruistic behavior than asynchronous others experiencing the same plight. These findings both support the view that a primary function of synchrony is to mark others as similar to the self and provide the first empirical demonstration that synchrony-induced affiliation modulates emotional responding and altruism.     

Are high-IQ individuals deficient in common sense? A critical examination of the ‘clever sillies’ hypothesis

A controversial hypothesis [Charlton (2009). Clever sillies: Why high-IQ people tend to be deficient in common sense. Medical Hypotheses, 73, 867–870] has recently been proposed to account for why individuals of high-IQ and high social status tend to hold counter-intuitive views on social phenomena. It is claimed that these ‘clever sillies’ use their high general intelligence and Openness to Experience to overanalyze social problems for which socially intelligent/common sense responses would seemingly be more appropriate. The first three sections of this review will consider i) the relationship between general and social intelligence; ii) the role of situational effects on the direction of the correlation between IQ and political attitudes; iii) the behavioral ecology of competitive altruism. While there is no hard evidence for Charlton's hypothesis, sophisticated although ultimately non-rational subjective analyses of social phenomena (i.e. ones that are disconfirmed by data, or reject empiricism) do seem to be favored by individuals in certain high-IQ knowledge work sectors. It is suggested that these function as costly signals of altruism, and that their popularity can best be understood in light of the theory that social attitudes are fundamentally influenced by perceptions of dominance and counter-dominance, with the latter playing an especially significant role in influencing the values systems of contemporary societies where the degree of conspicuous inequality is significantly evolutionarily novel.     

Emotional Closeness as a Mediator of the Effect of Genetic Relatedness on Altruism

Inclusive fitness theory has been used to explain the overall pattern of altruistic behavior. However, this theory does not address the proximal causes of altruism. The purpose of the present study was to increase the understanding of altruism by testing a model that includes both ultimate and proximate causes. In particular, emotional closeness was tested as a mediator of the effect of genetic relatedness on altruistic behavior. This was accomplished by having college students choose which of their family members they would most likely provide with life-saving assistance. As expected, results showed that emotional closeness is an important proximal cause of altruism that partially mediates the effect of genetic relatedness on willingness to act altruistically.     

主观社会阶层对亲社会行为的影响

从特质性的主观阶层感和情境性的主观阶层感两个角度考察了主观社会阶层对个体亲社会行为的影响。实验1采用问卷调查法,发现主观社会阶层较高的被试在人际关系取向上更倾向于共享关系取向。实验2采用材料启动法,发现对社会距离近的他人,高阶层与低阶层利他行为差异不显著;对社会距离远的他人,高阶层的利他行为显著大于低阶层组。研究结论：主观社会阶层较高的个体表现出更多的亲社会行为;社会距离起调节作用。     

A Reconsideration of Altruism From an Evolutionary and Psychodynamic Perspective

Altruistic behavior and motivation has traditionally been regarded as a defense mechanism defined by the vicissitudes of instinctual gratification. In this article, we suggest that there exists a substantial body of evidence from the fields of ethology, infant research, and experimental psychology to support the existence of an independently motivated altruism that is nondefensive in nature. We attempt to show how the view of altruism as a universal motivational system stems from the recent developments in evolutionary theory and contributes to our understanding of intrapsychic factors influencing human behavior in general and the process of psychotherapy in particular. It is not our goal to prove the existence of "pure altruism" that can never be derived from selfish motives. Rather, our thesis is that self-oriented and altruistic motivations are equal and essential partners in human evolution and development. It is the optimal balance of these two forces that is necessary for evolutionary advancement and for psychological health.     

德行领导与员工不道德行为、利他行为:道德推脱的中介作用

以道德推脱理论为基础,运用问卷调查法,通过对776名员工的调查,探讨了德行领导对员工不道德行为和利他行为的影响及道德推脱在这一影响中的中介作用。研究发现:(1)德行领导会抑制员工不道德行为的产生、促进员工利他行为的出现;(2)道德推脱会促进员工不道德行为的产生、抑制员工利他行为的出现;(3)德行领导通过道德推脱的完全中介作用负向影响员工的不道德行为,通过道德推脱的部分中介作用正向影响员工的利他行为。     

组织中利他行为的可持续性及其前因机制：基于主动性动机视角

随着社会经济的快速发展, 对于组织及其成员来说, 要想更好地在当前快速变化的工作环境中适应和发展, 员工利他行为的可持续性愈发重要。新近研究发现利他行为具有动态性, 但在理论框架和研究方法上存在严重不足, 无法获得利他行为动态可持续性特征的全貌, 对其前因机制的研究则更为缺失。因此, 本研究基于主动性动机视角, 聚焦利他行为可持续性的动态性特征, 并在此基础上探索利他行为可持续性的前因机制, 以期增进对利他行为本质的理解, 并为可持续互利团队与组织建设实践提供参考。     

安全依恋对共情和利他行为的影响

利他行为(Altruistic behavior)指以增加其他个体的福利为最终目标的行为, 它既是社会心理学领域的重要研究主题也是社会和谐稳定的需要。共情(Empathy)指个体感知或想象他人的情感, 并部分体验到他人感受的心理过程, 是利他行为的内在动机。已有研究证明, 安全依恋风格和安全依恋启动对个体共情和利他行为有积极影响。根据依恋理论和相关文献可以推测, 情绪调节和认知图式可能是安全依恋影响个体共情和利他行为的两种心理机制。未来可以探讨利他行为实施者与接受者的关系远近及双方依恋风格匹配程度的调节作用, 进一步验证安全依恋影响共情和利他行为的心理机制, 探讨利他行为对安全依恋的反向促进作用以及开发通过安全依恋培养个体共情能力和利他行为的干预方案。     

Nice guys finish first: the competitive altruism hypothesis

Three experimental studies examined the relationship between altruistic behavior and the emergence of status hierarchies within groups. In each study, group members were confronted with a social dilemma in which they could either benefit themselves or their group. Study 1 revealed that in a reputation environment when contributions were public, people were more altruistic. In both Studies 1 and 2, the most altruistic members gained the highest status in their group and were most frequently preferred as cooperative interaction partners. Study 3 showed that as the costs of altruism increase, the status rewards also increase. These results support the premise at the heart of competitive altruism: Individuals may behave altruistically for reputation reasons because selective benefits (associated with status) accrue to the generous.