Not just playing around: Infants’ behaviors with objects reflect ability,constraints, and object properties

This study describes infants’ behaviors with objects in relation to age, body position, and object properties. Object behaviors were assessed longitudinally in 22 healthy infants supine, prone, and sitting from birth through 2 years. Results reveal: (1) infants learn to become intense and sophisticated explorers within the first 6 months of life; (2) young infants dynamically and rapidly shift among a variety of behavioral combinations to gather information; (3) behaviors on objects develop along different trajectories so that behavioral profiles vary across time; (4) object behaviors are generally similar in supine and sitting but diminished in prone; and (5) infants begin matching certain behaviors to object properties as newborns. These data demonstrate how infants learn to match their emerging behaviors with changing positional constraints and object affordances.     

Becoming uniquely human? Comparing chimpanzee to human infancy

Does comparing behavioral development between chimpanzees and humans during infancy hold the key to understanding what is uniquely human? Recent work shows that while many behaviors emerge at similar ages in chimpanzees, human infants develop behavioral traits underpinning our prosocial and ultra-cooperative nature at a much accelerated rate.     

Examining pathways linking maternal depressive symptoms in infancy to children’s behavior problems: The role of maternal unresponsiveness and negative behaviors

The extent to which maternal depressive symptoms in the first 6 months of life is linked with internalizing and externalizing behaviors in childhood through specific insensitive maternal behaviors (unresponsive and overtly negative behaviors) was examined in a sample of 259 mother-infant dyads. In addition, the extent to which these paths were moderated by infant negative emotionality was also examined. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed prenatally and when infants were 6 months and 2 years old. Maternal unresponsive and overtly negative behaviors and infant negative emotionality were observed when infants were 6 months old. Mothers reported on infant’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors when infants were 2 years old. Maternal depressive symptoms were directly associated with higher internalizing behaviors; this path was not mediated by maternal behaviors. Depressive symptoms were unrelated to externalizing symptoms. Infant negative emotionality did not moderate these effects, but was related positively to overtly negative maternal behaviors, and temperament interacted with maternal depressive symptoms to predict unresponsive maternal behaviors. Results suggest that early maternal depressive symptoms, infant negative emotionality, and negative maternal behavior pose risk for infants’ later internalizing behaviors, but the proposed moderated mediation model was not supported.     

The effect of mother-infant skin-to-skin contact on Ghanaian infants’ response to the Still Face Task: Comparison between Ghanaian and Canadian mother-infant dyads

The effect of mother-infant skin-to-skin contact on Ghanaian infants’ developing social expectations for maternal behavior was investigated. Infants with high and low mother-infant skin-to-skin contact experience in the infants’ first month engaged with their mothers in a Still Face Task at 6 weeks of age. Infants with high skin-to-skin contact experience, but not those with low skin-to-skin contact experience, demonstrated the still face effect with their smiles. Infants with both high and low skin-to-skin contact experience demonstrated the still face effect with their visual attention. The behaviors of the Ghanaian infants and their mothers during the task were compared to archival evidence of Canadian mother-infant dyads’ behaviors in skin-to-skin and control groups who engaged in the Still Face Task at the infant ages of 1 and 2 months. Similarities and differences between the behaviors of the mother-infant dyads in the two cultures were assessed.     

Change in selectivity of infant social behavior between 15 and 30 weeks

Six infants were filmed at 15 and 30 weeks of age while alone as well as in the presence of an adult (mother or stranger) who interacted with the infant or remained passive. Judges viewing samples of infant behavior tried to identify the social context in which episodes of behavior had occurred. Signal detection analysis of ratings made by the judges showed that infant behavior at both ages varied in accord with whether or not an adult was present. The identity and interactional style of the adult had only limited influence on infant behavior at 15 weeks, but judges could readily establish from the behavior of 30-week infants whether the adult was interactive or passive. Mothers were no more accurate in their ratings of social context than other judges were, even when they were observing the behavior of their own infant. Measurement of specific infant behaviors showed that the presence of the adult at both ages and the interactional style of the adult at 30 weeks exerted selective influence over rates of looking and smiling by infants. Signal detection classification was more sensitive to social context variables than microanalysis, possibly because observers had access to complex behavioral configurations.     

Infants’ expressive behaviors to mothers and unfamiliar partners during face-to-face interactions from 4 to 10 months

Changes in the organization of infant looking, facial expressions, and vocalizations were examined over age (4, 7, and 10 months) and with different social partners. Although infants at all ages accompanied smiling with looking at both mothers and unfamiliar partners, 7- and 10-month infants accompanied vocalization with looking only when they were with mothers. Seven- and 10-month-olds vocalized with unfamiliar partners only when they were smiling at the same time. When mothers stopped talking, infants reduced smiling significantly at all ages, yet vocalized more at 10 months. In the second half of the first year, there are fundamental changes in the coordination of infant expressive behaviors that reveal a keen attunement to variations in maternal behavior and the familiarity of social partners.     

Training AIDS and Anger Prevention Social Skills in At‐Risk Adolescents

Youth in alternative schools often engage in high rates of risk behaviors for AIDS and violence. This study included 42 youth, ages 13 to 18, from alternative schools in San Diego, CA, and tested the effectiveness of behavioral skills training based on the Behavioral‐Ecological Model. Two interventions were evaluated: one teaching condom use skills and the other teaching anger management skills. Changes in most skills were significant at postintervention but were not maintained at 6 months. Few risk‐related attitudes or behaviors improved at 6 months for either group.     

Robust patterns and individual variations: Stability and predictors of infant behavior in the still-face paradigm

In the present study we examined key issues regarding infant behavior in the still-face paradigm (SFP) in terms of individual variations, stability, and predictors. The sample consisted of 115 mothers and infants, with assessments at ages 3 and 6 months, including observations of maternal and infant behavior in the SFP, and parent reports of infant temperament. Both robust patterns and individual variations in infant SFP behaviors were found, with only a minority of infants showing the expected patterns for negative affect and gaze. Infant behavior patterns showed no stability from age 3 to 6 months, and infant gaze was related to more pronounced behavior changes across the SFP. Maternal sensitivity in the SFP baseline was related to some aspects of infant SFP behavior. Consistent with the differential susceptibility hypothesis, in infants with a more difficult temperament maternal sensitivity predicted a more pronounced expected pattern of changes in infant positive affect across the SFP, whereas this was not the case for infants with a more easy temperament.     

Infants' responses to arm restraint at 2 and 6 months: a longitudinal study

This study examined the continuity, stability, and change of infants' responses to a frustrating event (i.e., arm restraint) between 2 and 6 months in terms of both negative reactivity and its regulation. Fifty-two healthy, full-term infants and their mothers participated in an arm restraint procedure. Infant behaviors were observed and coded at 3-s intervals. The results showed that infants' reactivity to frustration and their ability to regulate such reactivity significantly changed in level over time. Individual differences in frustration reactivity were stable across the two ages; two regulatory behaviors (i.e., orientation to mother and avoidance) could be observed in the same percentage of babies at both 2 and 6 months. At 6 months, several significant associations between frustration reactivity and infant regulatory behaviors emerged. These findings suggest that the arm restraint procedure may be usefully employed to study individual differences in infants as young as 2 months of age.     

The influence of lying positions and postural control on hand-mouth and hand-hand behaviors in 0-4-month-old infants

The purpose of this study was to verify how and when body position and postural control affect hand-mouth and hand-hand behaviors in infants during their first 4 months of life. Forty healthy infants were positioned in supine, prone and side-lying positions so that frequency and duration of the behaviors were quantified. Postural control when in supine and prone was also analyzed. The prone position elicited hand-mouth behavior in 0-2-month-old infants. The side-lying position elicited hand-mouth behavior in 3-4-month-old infants and hand-hand behavior in 2-4-month-olds. The increased postural control promoted the emergence of hand-hand behavior when in supine, and decreased hand-mouth behavior when in prone. The results show that self-exploratory behaviors may be affected not only by extrinsic constraints, represented by different body positions, but also by intrinsic constraints, represented by characteristic action possibilities and postural control of each age group.     

Behavioral Control Dynamics and Developmental Outcomes in Infants Prenatally Exposed to Cocaine

This study longitudinally examined the associations between mother–infant interactions at 15 months and behavioral and cognitive outcomes at 36 months of age in a sample of at‐risk, young children. Participants for the current study were 58 infants/toddlers prenatally exposed to cocaine and their maternal caregivers. These infants were from a low socioeconomic status background and were part of an intervention setting. When the children were 12, 15, and 36 months, they participated in research sessions with their maternal caregivers. Cognitive development at 12 months and maternal and infant behavior at 15 months were measured to predict behavioral and cognitive outcome at 36 months. Higher levels of maternal control at 15 months were marginally significant in predicting higher levels of problem behavior at 36 months whereas higher levels of infant resistance to control predicted lower levels of problem behavior. Furthermore, control‐resistant behavior displayed by infants was a unique buffer against problem behavior, even after controlling for maternal factors and cognitive abilities. These findings suggest that maternal control attempts and infant reactions to those maternal control behaviors play an important role in the development of adaptive and maladaptive behavior patterns during early childhood.     

Emergence of amae crying in early infancy as a possible social communication tool between infants and mothers

Amae is defined as “wishing to be loved (Scheidlinger (1999). The Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 27(1), p. 91)”. Amae crying is known as crying of infants when seeking intimate emotional communication with caregivers. The objective of this study was to delineate when and how amae crying emerges in early infancy. Crying episodes of four infants were observed bimonthly, in the natural context of their homes, from birth to 6 months of age, for approximately 60 min per session. Crying episodes (total = 275) as determined by two coders were analyzed with respect to several behavioral measures. Results indicated that amae crying emerged at the age of 2 months, and consistently accounted for 30–40% of the total crying episodes after the ages of 3 months. Amae crying could be accurately identified when infants were not in acute discomfort and had already got the attention of their mothers. At such times, infants did not shed tears, cried with a fussy voice, and frequently looked at their mothers. Mothers responded to amae crying more promptly than they did to other types of crying behaviors. It is concluded that 3 months of age, when infants probably begin to use crying as a social communication tool is a major turning point for crying behavior from the perspective of its biological and social roles. It is suggested that amae crying might play an important role in strengthening and encouraging mother–infant interactions.     

Do Genetic Factors Explain the Links Between Callous-Unemotional,Attention Hyperactivity and Oppositional Defiant Problems in Toddlers?

Research demonstrates that callous-unemotional (CU) behaviors, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Problems (ODD) are related, but little is known about the sources of covariation among the three externalizing behaviors. The present study looked at genetic and environmental links between all three behavioral domains in twins at ages 2 and 3 years (MZ = 145, DZ = 169), a time when CU behaviors are beginning to emerge. CU, ADHD, and ODD behaviors as assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist 1.5–5 (Achenbach and Rescorla 2000) were strongly interrelated at both ages. Genetic factors primarily explained the covariation among the three behavioral domains via a common externalizing factor; however, there were also genetic factors unique to each behavior. Furthermore, the majority of nonshared environmental influences on each externalizing behavior were behavior-specific. The heritable externalizing factor was highly stable across age, largely due to genetic factors shared across ages 2 and 3 years. Despite their extensive phenotypic and genetic overlap, CU, ADHD, and ODD behaviors have unique genetic and nonshared environmental influences as early as toddlerhood. This supports phenotypic research showing that the three are related but distinct constructs in very young children.     

Does late preterm birth impact trunk control and early reaching behavior?

The aims of the study were to 1) verify the level of trunk control longitudinally and reaching behavior while sitting in two positions in late preterm (LPT) and full-term (FT) infants, 2) determine whether the level of trunk control relates to reaching outcomes. Twenty LPT infants and 36 infants born FT were assessed via three in-lab visits: at 6, 7, and 8 months. At each visit, the Segmental Assessment of Trunk Control (SATCo) and reaching assessment were performed, where the infants were positioned sitting in the ring and at 90° of flexion of hips, knees, and ankles. Accurate manual support to the trunk was provided in each visit. LPT infants presented a lower level of trunk control over time. LPT infants presented a higher percentage of unimanual reaches and successful grasping at 7 months' visit, and a higher number of reaches at 8 months' visit compared to FT infants. The sitting positions did not influence reaching performance. The level of trunk control relates to functional reaching strategies only in FT infants. This study might provide insights for clinicians for understanding the level of trunk control, the importance of reaching behaviors for exploration, and considering these behaviors as strategies for intervention.     

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SYMBOLIC CODING STIMULI IN BEHAVIOR MODELING TRAINING

Three types of learning points (behavioral, summary label, and rule-oriented) and a no-learning point control condition were compared in terms of their effects on two dependent variables (reproduction and generalization) in a behavior modeling training laboratory experiment ( N = 80). Multivariate analysis of variance revealed that individuals who had been randomly assigned to the rule-oriented and behavioral learning point conditions were able to generalize and reproduce the key behaviors better than a no learning point control condition. Those in the rule-oriented condition were able to generalize the modeled behaviors to novel conditions more so than individuals assigned the behavioral learning point condition. Those who had received the behavioral learning points were able to imitate the modeled performance better than individuals in the rule-oriented condition. Those who received the summary label learning points were not able to a reproduce, but could generalize the modeled behaviors to a different setting. There was no difference found between the summary label and rule-oriented conditions on the generalization dependent variable.     

Gaze behavior and affect at 6 months: predicting clinical outcomes and language development in typically developing infants and infants at risk for autism

This paper presents follow‐up longitudinal data to research that previously suggested the possibility of abnormal gaze behavior marked by decreased eye contact in a subgroup of 6‐month‐old infants at risk for autism ( Merin, Young, Ozonoff & Rogers, 2007 ). Using eye‐tracking data and behavioral data recorded during a live mother–infant interaction involving the still‐face procedure, the predictive utility of gaze behavior and affective behaviors at 6 months was examined using diagnostic outcome data obtained longitudinally over the following 18 months. Results revealed that none of the infants previously identified as showing lower rates of eye contact had any signs of autism at outcome. In contrast, three infants who were diagnosed with autism demonstrated consistent gaze to the eye region and typical affective responses at 6 months. Individual differences in face scanning and affective responsivity during the live interaction were not related to any continuous measures of symptom frequency or symptom severity. In contrast, results of growth curve models for language development revealed significant relationships between face scanning and expressive language. Greater amounts of fixation to the mother's mouth during live interaction predicted higher levels of expressive language at outcome and greater rates of growth. These findings suggest that although gaze behavior at 6 months may not provide early markers for autism as initially conceived, gaze to the mouth in particular may be useful in predicting individual differences in language development.     

Long-lasting memory for an odor acquired at the mother's breast

Whether neonatal odor memory can persist into toddlerhood and influence behaviors that tap processes related to cognition (attention and exploration), motivation (choice and consumption), and emotion (hedonic processing) remains under-researched. Using a quasi-experimental longitudinal design, we examined whether an odor experienced at the mother's breast can be retained at 7 and 21 months. The prescribed prophylactic use of a camomile-scented balm defined two groups: infants exposed (CaE) or never exposed (CaNE) to camomile odor. At 7 months, exploratory responses to three similar objects differing in odor (including camomile) were analyzed. At 21 months, three tasks were used to assess toddlers' (i) facial responses; (ii) exploratory responses to three similar, but differently odorized objects; and (iii) choices between two bottles carrying different odors. CaE infants displayed preferential responses for camomile odor at both ages in every task. In contrast, CaNE infants behaved either randomly or more negatively to camomile odor. This study indicates that early odor memories acquired during breastfeeding can be reactivated and influence behavioral processes until at least toddlerhood.     

Effects of covert modeling and coding of modeled stimuli on assertive behavior.

The present investigation examined the effects of covert modeling in developing assertive behavior and the effects of verbal coding of the modeling stimuli on treatment outcome. In a 2 × 2 design, modeling (imagining an assertive model versus imagining scenes without an assertive model) and summary coding (developing verbal codes of the modeled material versus not developing codes) were combined. The results indicated that modeling and coding enhanced behavior change across self-report inventories and a behavioral role-playing test. Superior performance on these measures was achieved by the modeling group that both imagined an assertive model and engaged in summary coding. These effects transferred to novel role-playing situations at post-treatment and were maintained at a 6-month follow-up assessment. The results suggest that coding of treatment stimuli affects acquisition and maintenance of the modeled behaviors in treatment in a way that resembles findings from laboratory research on modeling.     

Associations between mother-infant bed-sharing practices and infant affect and behavior during the still-face paradigm

Parents in the United States increasingly report bed-sharing with their infants (i.e., sleeping on a shared sleep surface), but the relationship between bed-sharing and child socioemotional outcomes are not well understood. The current study examines the links between mother-infant bed-sharing at 3 months and infant affect and behavior during a dyadic challenge task at 6 months. Further, we examine nighttime mother-infant contact at 3 months as a possible mechanism that may mediate linkages between bed-sharing and infant outcomes. Using observational data from a sample of 63 mother-infant dyads, we found that infants who bed-shared for any proportion of the observation period at 3 months displayed significantly more self-regulatory behaviors during the still-face episode of the Still-Face Paradigm (SFP) at 6 months, compared to non-bed-sharing infants. Also, infants of mothers who bed-shared for the entire observation period displayed significantly less negativity during the reunion episode than non-bed-sharing infants. There was no evidence that the relations between mother-infant bed-sharing practices and infant affect and behavior during the SFP were mediated through nighttime mother-infant contact. Results suggest that infant regulation at 6 months postpartum may vary based on early nighttime experiences, with bed-sharing potentially promoting more positive and well-regulated behavior during dyadic interaction.